Isabella Carter
The Enlightenment was a period of significant intellectual and philosophical development, challenging traditional monarchies and social orders. One notable Enlightenment thinker was John Locke, who is remembered as the father of modern republican government. Locke supported England's constitutional monarchy and promoted democratic governments. Another influential figure was Montesquieu, who introduced the idea of the separation of powers in government, inspired by England's constitutional monarchy and Glorious Revolution. Montesquieu believed that the nature of a state's constitution was of utmost importance to prevent the abuse of power. These Enlightenment thinkers, along with others like Rousseau, contributed to the principles that shaped the American Revolution and the French Revolution, advocating for freedom, equality, and individual rights.
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What You'll Learn
John Locke's view on social contract theory
John Locke was one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, and his philosophy of governance was based on social contract theory. This theory, which was central to Enlightenment political thought, was an attempt to justify and delimit political authority on the grounds of individual self-interest and rational consent. Locke's version of the social contract theory proposed that the only right that people give up to enter into civil society and access its benefits is the right to punish other people for violating rights. In other words, people give up their right to be vigilantes. However, if the government breaks the social contract by failing to punish those who violate the rights of others, the right to punish returns to the individual.
Locke's theory is based on the idea that the state of nature is a condition in which humans are free, equal, and independent, but they are still obliged to follow the law of nature. The law of nature serves as a permanent standard and a principle of protection against arbitrary authority. According to Locke, governments have no right to legislate anything contrary to the law of nature. While Locke's philosophy generally supports the idea of majority rule, he also believed that there can be no subjection to power without consent. Therefore, sovereigns who violate the natural rights of their citizens, including the right to private property, can be justifiably overthrown.
Locke's views on the social contract theory suggest that he saw the state as a mutual defense agreement, where individuals give up certain rights for the collective protection provided by the state. However, some interpretations of Locke's work suggest that he may have had a somewhat inconsistent view of the state, at times implying that it is also a mutual improvement association, where individuals give up rights for the pursuit of "the public good."
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Locke's belief in the separation of powers
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy on social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. Locke's central claims are that government should not use force to try to bring people to the true religion and that religious societies are voluntary organisations that have no right to use coercive power over their own members or those outside their group.
Locke argues that neither the example of Jesus nor the teachings of the New Testament give any indication that force is a proper way to bring people to salvation. He also frequently points out what he takes to be clear evidence of hypocrisy, namely that those who are so quick to persecute others for small differences in worship or doctrine are relatively unconcerned with much more obvious moral sins that pose an even greater threat to their eternal state.
Locke also gives three reasons that are more philosophical in nature for barring governments from using force to encourage people to adopt religious beliefs. Firstly, he argues that since the power of the government is only force, while true religion consists of genuine inward persuasion of the mind, force is incapable of bringing people to the true religion. Secondly, even if the magistrate could change people’s minds, a situation where everyone accepted the magistrate’s religion would not bring more people to the true religion. Thirdly, that authorization must be by consent.
Locke's constitution divides political power between the executive and the legislature, with the latter checking and balancing the former. Both the executive and the legislature have a fiduciary trust to act for the public good. Locke closely links the public good and the constitution such that any breach of the constitution is per se a breach of the public good. Therefore, unreviewable decision-making by the executive always violates its trust because it is a breach of the constitution.
Locke's theory of the separation of powers has been used in the post-9/11 era to develop alternative constitutional models that address the problem of discretionary executive power.
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Montesquieu's belief in the separation of powers
The Enlightenment was a period of significant intellectual and political transformation, with thinkers advocating for ideas such as liberty, republicanism, and religious tolerance. While there was little respect for inherited political power or monarchy among some Enlightenment thinkers, others, like Voltaire, supported the idea of enlightened absolutism, where absolute monarchs rule with reason and justice, akin to "philosopher-kings".
One of the key Enlightenment thinkers associated with constitutional monarchy and the separation of powers is Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron Montesquieu. Montesquieu is known for his contributions to the doctrine of the separation of powers, which he did not invent but developed and emphasised in his work, "De l'Esprit des Loix". He is credited with coining the term "separation of powers", which refers to dividing the government into separate branches, each with its own independent powers, thus ensuring no single branch becomes more powerful than the others. Montesquieu's model typically divides the government into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch responsible for creating laws, the executive branch for executing them, and the judicial branch for interpreting and assessing the constitutionality of laws.
Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers were influenced by contemporary English writers and John Locke, and he is said to have contributed new dimensions to the doctrine, particularly regarding the judiciary. Montesquieu's view of monarchy, however, may not have fully aligned with a strict separation of powers. His concept of a moderate government included monarchy, and he believed that to form such a government, it was necessary to combine and balance powers rather than separate them entirely. This view is similar to Bodin's concept of royal monarchy, and Montesquieu's writings on this subject can be interpreted as applying to both monarchy and aristocracy.
Montesquieu's influence on political thought and institutional development, particularly in relation to the separation of powers, has been significant. His ideas have had a lasting impact on the formation of governments and constitutions, including the US Constitution, which incorporates the separation of powers through its system of checks and balances. Montesquieu's emphasis on the judiciary and his elevation of the doctrine's importance have contributed to its enduring legacy in political theory and practice.
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Voltaire's view on absolute monarchy
Voltaire, the pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet, was a prominent participant in the Enlightenment, an intellectual and cultural movement that contributed to significant cultural and political change. Voltaire's views on absolute monarchy were shaped by the context of his time, particularly the strong monarchical governments prevalent in France.
During the Enlightenment, European rulers like Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria embraced Enlightenment ideals and were known as "enlightened despots." Voltaire initially supported the idea of enlightened absolutism, believing that an absolute monarch must be enlightened and guided by reason and justice, essentially becoming a "philosopher-king." He argued that given the social structures of his time, including high illiteracy rates, only an enlightened monarch could bring about meaningful change.
However, Voltaire's experiences and observations led him to develop a critical perspective on absolute monarchy. He faced censorship, imprisonment, and exile due to his outspoken nature and willingness to challenge authority. Voltaire actively criticised the monarchy, aristocracy, and the Catholic Church, which held significant power in France at the time. He perceived the French bourgeoisie as ineffective, the aristocracy as parasitic and corrupt, and the church as oppressive and complicit in royal abuses of power.
Voltaire's writings played a significant role in shaping his views. He produced a vast body of work, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific writings. His prose writings, often in the form of polemics, conveyed radical political and philosophical messages. Voltaire criticised the abuses of power by royalty and the clergy, religious intolerance, and the superstitions that the clergy propagated among the people. He advocated for religious tolerance and targeted religious fanaticism, particularly that of the Jesuits.
Despite his initial support for enlightened absolutism, Voltaire's experiences and observations of the shortcomings of absolute monarchy led him to favour a constitutional monarchy. He believed that a constitutional monarchy would protect people's rights and provide checks and balances against the excesses of royal power. Voltaire's views on democracy were complex; while he despised democracy due to his distrust of the masses, he recognised the importance of individual freedom and the use of one's own reason.
In conclusion, Voltaire's views on absolute monarchy evolved throughout his life. Initially favouring enlightened absolutism, his experiences and critical perspective led him to advocate for a constitutional monarchy that would protect people's rights. Voltaire's writings and philosophical contributions continue to shape political thought and our understanding of history.
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Mary Wollstonecraft's critique of monarchy
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) was a moral and political philosopher whose critique of monarchy was informed by her analysis of the condition of women in modern society. She is best known for her work, "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), which made a substantial contribution to feminism.
Wollstonecraft's critique of monarchy was shaped by her experiences in France, Northern Europe, and Great Britain. She witnessed the French Revolution first-hand and celebrated it in her "Vindication of the Rights of Men" (1790), which was written in response to Edmund Burke's critique of the same. She argued that the revolution was a great achievement, but she also condemned the Jacobin regime and the Reign of Terror. Wollstonecraft's defence of the revolution put her at odds with Burke, who idealised Marie Antoinette as a noble victim of a mob. In contrast, Wollstonecraft portrayed the queen as a "femme fatale", a seductive and dangerous woman. She also defended the Parisian women who forced the French royal family from Versailles to Paris, arguing that they were ordinary housewives angry about the lack of bread for their families.
Wollstonecraft's critique of monarchy extended beyond the specific figures of the French monarchy to a broader rejection of monarchy and hereditary privilege. She attacked the language that Burke used to defend and elevate the monarchy, particularly his association of the "beautiful" with weakness and femininity, and the "sublime" with strength and masculinity. By redefining these terms, she undermined Burke's rhetoric and argument.
Wollstonecraft's critique of monarchy was also informed by her engagement with the aesthetic theories of Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke, and Plato's theory of knowledge. Her complex relationship with the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau has also been noted. Wollstonecraft's views on women's equality and critiques of conventional femininity became increasingly important with the emergence of the feminist movement in the 20th century.
Wollstonecraft's critique of monarchy and her advocacy for women's equality were part of her attempt to understand human relations within a civilisation that was increasingly governed by acquisitiveness and consumption. Her reflections on the status of women in society were radical for her time and continue to be challenging today.
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Frequently asked questions
John Locke supported England's constitutional monarchy and promoted democratic governments.
Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. He also believed that human beings, because of divine will, are inherently good and can make their own reasonable decisions if left alone by the government.
John Locke, a political theorist, believed that a state could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a social contract. In his view, social contract theory protected the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. If this did not happen, he argued that the people had a right to rebel.
Mary Wollstonecraft was the major female voice of the Enlightenment. She was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights.
