Isabella Carter
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a philosophical movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was marked by three political revolutions: the English Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775–1783), and the French Revolution (1789–1799). The Enlightenment was most identified with its political accomplishments, as it laid the basis for modern, republican, constitutional democracies. The movement sought to apply methods of inquiry and discovery to fields such as law, religion, economics, and politics, and it produced secularized theories of psychology and ethics. Many Enlightenment philosophers, such as Voltaire, believed that monarchy was the best way to advance social, political, and economic goals, and that a monarchy with limited powers makes a country stable and secure. Montesquieu, another Enlightenment philosopher, distinguished three main forms of government: republics, monarchies, and despotisms. He argued that power should not be concentrated in just one person and called for a balanced distribution of power between executive, legislative, and judicial authorities.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Believed in a constitutional monarchy | Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Locke |
| Opposed absolute monarchy | Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke |
| Believed in the "consent of the governed" philosophy | Locke |
| Believed in the "divine right of kings" philosophy | Locke |
| Believed in the power of intellectual progress to improve society and individual lives | Voltaire, D’Alembert, Diderot, Montesquieu |
| Supported a balanced distribution of power between executive, legislative, and judicial authorities | Montesquieu |
| Supported a separation of church and state | Montesquieu |
| Supported a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal | Portuguese royal family |
| Supported a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of 1812 | Ferdinand of Spain |
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What You'll Learn
- Voltaire believed that monarchy was the best way to advance social, political, and economic goals
- Montesquieu distinguished three main forms of government: republics, monarchies, and despotisms
- Rousseau and Locke introduced the idea that no ruler should have unlimited power
- Locke claimed that if the people opposed their leader, they had the right to replace them
- The French Revolution, inspired by Enlightenment principles, ultimately toppled the country's monarchy
Voltaire believed that monarchy was the best way to advance social, political, and economic goals
The Enlightenment is most closely associated with its political accomplishments, including the English Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775–1783), and the French Revolution (1789–1799). These revolutions laid the basis for modern, republican, constitutional democracies.
The Enlightenment was a movement that sought to apply the methods of the Scientific Revolution to the fields of law, religion, economics, and politics. Enlightenment scholars believed that such thinking could produce more equitable societies, free from the unchecked power of monarchs and religious leaders.
Despite the anti-monarchy sentiment of the Enlightenment, Voltaire believed that monarchy was the best way to advance social, political, and economic goals. Voltaire despised democracy, which he saw as propagating the "idiocy of the masses". He believed that only an enlightened monarch could bring about change and that it was in the king's rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. Voltaire's view of monarchy is encapsulated in his quote: "I would rather obey one lion, than two hundred rats of [his own] species."
Voltaire was an outspoken advocate for civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. He was highly critical of the French institutions of his day, including the monarchy, the aristocracy, the commoners, and the church. Voltaire perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static and oppressive force. Voltaire's works frequently refer to "l'infâme" or "crush the infamous", which refers to the abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy, and the superstition and intolerance bred within the people by the clergy.
Voltaire's views on monarchy were influenced by his time in England, where he studied the country's constitutional monarchy, religious tolerance, philosophical rationalism, and natural sciences. He saw England as a useful model for what he considered to be a backward France. Voltaire also admired England's freedom of speech and religious tolerance, which he saw as necessary prerequisites for social and political progress.
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Montesquieu distinguished three main forms of government: republics, monarchies, and despotisms
The Enlightenment, a movement that sought to apply scientific methods of inquiry and discovery to the fields of law, religion, economics, and politics, was marked by three political revolutions: the English Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775–1783), and the French Revolution (1789–1799). These revolutions laid the basis for modern, republican, constitutional democracies.
One of the Enlightenment's key figures was Montesquieu, a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. Montesquieu distinguished three main forms of government: republics, monarchies, and despotisms.
In his 1748 text on political philosophy, *The Spirit of the Laws* (or *The Spirit of Law*), Montesquieu outlined the characteristics of each form of government. He described republics as having either a democratic or aristocratic form, with the people or a part of the people holding sovereign power. In a democracy, the people govern through ministers or senators, but they must have the power to choose their ministers and senators. Montesquieu saw the principle of a republic as virtue, which he defined as "the love of the laws and of our country."
In contrast, monarchies were characterized by rule according to "fixed and established laws." Montesquieu believed that the principle of monarchical government was honour, and that the task of education in a monarchy was to heighten ambition and a sense of worth, providing an ideal of honour to aspire to. He also believed that the laws of a monarchy should be designed to preserve the power of subordinate institutions, such as the nobility and an independent judiciary.
Despotisms, according to Montesquieu, were ruled by a single man without law or regulation, imposing his will through fear. He noted that despotisms lacked commerce due to the lack of security of property, and that they were relatively easy to establish, as they required no balance of powers, no complicated motivations, and no restraints on power.
Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers, with executive, legislative, and judicial authorities balancing each other, were influential and were later incorporated into the US Constitution. His work on the different forms of government was shaped by the political changes he witnessed in his early life, such as England's transition to a constitutional monarchy and the end of Louis XIV's long reign in France.
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Rousseau and Locke introduced the idea that no ruler should have unlimited power
The idea that no ruler should have unlimited power is a concept that has been introduced and popularised by Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Both philosophers are known for their theories on the social contract, which challenged the notion of absolute monarchical rule.
Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" is a key text in this regard. In it, he criticises the idea of the divine right of kings, arguing instead that political power is derived from the consent of the governed. For Locke, political power is the right to make laws for the protection and regulation of property, and these laws are only legitimate if they are for the public good and accepted by the people. He also emphasises the importance of natural rights and freedom, distinguishing between the state of nature, where people live together governed by reason, and the state of war, which occurs when people's rights and freedoms are interfered with by unwelcome force. Locke's conception of property rights, based on individual labour, further underscores his belief in limited governmental power.
Rousseau built upon the work of Locke and other social contract theorists, including Thomas Hobbes. He vehemently disagreed with Hobbes' notion of absolute sovereignty, instead arguing for popular sovereignty, where authority is derived from the people. Rousseau's concept of "the will of the people" has had a significant influence on democratic theory, with elections seen as a mechanism to express the collective sentiment of the people and shape laws.
Both Locke and Rousseau recognised the importance of individual freedom and the need to limit the power of rulers. They advocated for a social contract where citizens grant authority to a sovereign power in exchange for protection and stability, but this authority is not absolute and can be revoked if it no longer serves the public good.
Through their ideas, Locke and Rousseau laid the groundwork for challenging unlimited monarchical power and promoting the concept of constitutional government, where the power of rulers is constrained by laws and the will of the people.
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Locke claimed that if the people opposed their leader, they had the right to replace them
John Locke was an English philosopher whose ideas were influential during the Enlightenment. Locke's philosophy was centred around the idea of consensual government, which was a significant paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "'divine right of kings'. Locke argued that leaders derived their authority not from God but from the people, and that if the people opposed their leader, they had the right to replace their government with one that respected their rights.
Locke's ideas were a response to the theories of Sir Robert Filmer, who wrote in support of the divine right of kings and their absolute power. Locke carefully examined Filmer's assumptions and refuted the theory of divine rule, instead outlining his justification for consensual government. In Locke's view, the proper way to prevent rulers from abusing their power was to show them the danger and injustice of it, as they are the ones most likely to do so.
Locke's philosophy was influenced by his patron, Shaftesbury, who encouraged toleration rather than division. Locke's first Essay on Toleration reflected this, marking a shift from his earlier view that the ruler should prescribe the form of religious service for the country. Locke's time abroad from 1683-89, due to the intolerant and politically charged atmosphere in England, allowed him to develop his philosophy further.
Locke's ideas were influential during the Enlightenment, a movement that sought to apply methods of inquiry and discovery to the fields of law, religion, economics, and politics. Enlightenment scholars believed that such thinking could produce more equitable societies that were not beholden to the unchecked power of monarchs and religious leaders. Locke's philosophy of "consent of the governed" contributed to the growing wave of social unrest in France in the eighteenth century, which eventually led to the violent upheaval of the monarchy during the French Revolution.
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The French Revolution, inspired by Enlightenment principles, ultimately toppled the country's monarchy
The Enlightenment, a movement that sought to apply scientific methods of inquiry and discovery to the fields of law, religion, economics, and politics, was marked by three political revolutions: the English Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775–1783), and the French Revolution (1789–1799). The French Revolution, inspired by Enlightenment principles, ultimately toppled the country's monarchy.
Enlightenment philosophers believed that such thinking could produce societies that were more equitable and just, and not beholden to the unchecked power of monarchs and religious leaders. The Enlightenment is associated with political revolutions and ideals, especially the French Revolution of 1789, which was a response to the growing wave of social unrest in France in the eighteenth century. The social unrest culminated in violent political upheaval that swept away the traditional and hierarchical structures of the monarchy, the privileges of the nobility, and the political power of the Catholic Church.
The Enlightenment's political accomplishments include the basic model of government founded upon the consent of the governed, the articulation of political ideals of freedom and equality, and the theory of their institutional realization. Enlightenment writers and philosophers such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau influenced ordinary readers, politicians, and even heads of state all over the Western world. Voltaire, in particular, held out English religious toleration as a model. In their criticism, Montesquieu and Rousseau moved beyond existing institutions, proposing new principles of government based on reason and comparative study.
The French Revolution, inspired by these Enlightenment principles, aimed to topple the institutions surrounding hereditary monarchy and establish new ones based on Enlightenment ideals. The revolutionaries tried to put the monarchy on a different foundation of constitutionalism, but they did abolish the old system of special privileges. In one long session (throughout the night of 4 August 1789), the deputies to the new National Assembly voluntarily renounced the privileges of their towns, provinces, and various social groups. Nobles, clergy, judges, and even ordinary taxpayers lost whatever special standing they had gained over the centuries. From then on, everyone was to be identical before the law. This concept of equality became one of the cardinal principles of the new declaration, passed only three weeks later.
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Frequently asked questions
Many enlightenment philosophers believed in a constitutional monarchy. These include Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot.
These enlightenment philosophers believed that no ruler should have unlimited power and that leaders derived their authority from the people, not God. They also believed in the ideas of liberty, equality, and individual rights.
The political revolutions that occurred during the Enlightenment, such as the English Revolution (1688), the American Revolution (1775-1783), and the French Revolution (1789-1799), were influenced by these Enlightenment ideals. The revolutions aimed to replace the old governance paradigm of the "divine right of kings" with the "consent of the governed."
Interestingly, few enlightenment philosophers supported democracy as we understand it today. Many, like Voltaire, believed that monarchy was the best way to achieve social, political, and economic goals. However, they introduced the revolutionary idea that citizens could hold their leaders accountable.
