Absolute Monarchies: Constitutional Conundrum Or Clarity?

Absolute monarchies are political systems in which a monarch holds absolute power and is the sole decision-maker. While absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents, they differ from constitutional monarchies, where the authority of the monarch is restricted by a constitution or other officials. Many former absolute monarchies, such as Jordan, Kuwait, and Morocco, have transitioned to constitutional monarchies, and some have further transformed into republics. This evolution from absolute to constitutional monarchy has been influenced by various factors, including the spread of democratic ideals, the desire for modernity, and the balance of power between the monarch and other societal groups.

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Absolutism in Russia

Peter's reign was followed by that of Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great, who ruled from 1762 to 1796. Catherine was an "enlightened absolutist" ruler who corresponded with French Enlightenment intellectuals such as Voltaire for about 15 years. She consolidated the power of the Russian state, expanded its bureaucracy, carried out reforms, subordinated the nobles, and grew Russia's military might and territorial possessions.

The tradition of absolutism continued into the next century with tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I. Alexander II undertook significant reforms by the middle of the 19th century, including freeing the serfs in 1861. In 1906, Tsar Nicholas II attempted to modernise the Russian political system by allowing for a constitution and a parliament. However, the concept of absolutism was so ingrained in Russia that the Russian Constitution of 1906 still described the monarch as an autocrat. It wasn't until the 1905 Revolution that Russia gained a representative assembly and a constitution. Russia became the last European country (excluding Vatican City) to abolish absolutism, doing so in the 20th century.

Absolute monarchies are distinct from constitutional monarchies, in which the authority of the monarch is restricted by a constitution or balanced by other officials, such as a prime minister. While absolute monarchies may be supported by legal documents, they lack the established legal framework that defines and limits the powers of a constitutional monarchy.

Absolute monarchies in the Arab world

Absolute monarchies are governments in which a monarch is the sole decision-maker and holds absolute power. They are distinct from constitutional monarchies, where the authority of the monarch is restricted by a constitution or balanced by other officials, such as a prime minister. Notable absolute monarchies in the Arab world include Saudi Arabia, Oman, and the individual emirates within the United Arab Emirates.

Saudi Arabia, a key example of an absolute monarchy in the Arab world, has been governed as such since its unification in 1932 by King Ibn Saud. The country follows Islamic lines and the ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam is considered a predominant feature of its culture. Saudi Arabia's vast oil and gas reserves, the second-largest in the world, have played a significant role in its global influence and relations with Western nations, particularly the United States. The kingdom's Basic Law, adopted in 1992, stipulates that the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, which are considered the country's constitution. Critics have described the Saudi political system as a totalitarian dictatorship due to the absence of national elections and political parties.

Oman, another Arab country with an absolute monarchy, stands out for its stability and unique characteristics. While the Sultan of Oman wields absolute power, the country has a long tradition of civic consultation and a relatively diverse set of political institutions.

The individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are also examples of absolute monarchies within the Arab world. The UAE is a federation of these monarchies, each ruled by a hereditary emir who possesses significant decision-making authority.

It is worth noting that some Arab countries have transitioned away from absolute monarchies. Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Qatar, for instance, have moved towards constitutional monarchy systems, although the monarch still retains considerable powers in these countries.

The resilience of absolute monarchies in the Arab world has intrigued scholars for decades. Despite predictions that these governments would transition to republics or constitutional monarchies, they have proven remarkably stable. The distribution of wealth, particularly from hydrocarbon resources, and the geostrategic importance of these monarchies are believed to be contributing factors to their endurance.

Constitutional monarchies in the modern world

There are at least two types of constitutional monarchies in the modern world: executive and ceremonial. In executive monarchies (also called semi-constitutional monarchies), the monarch wields significant (but not absolute) power and is a powerful political and social institution. Examples of executive constitutional monarchies include Liechtenstein and Monaco, where the monarchs wield significant executive power but are not absolute monarchs and have very limited de facto power compared to Islamic monarchs.

On the other hand, in ceremonial monarchies, the monarch holds little or no actual power or direct political influence, though they often have a great deal of social and cultural influence. Examples of ceremonial constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. In these countries, the monarch is the head of state and the emblem of state authority, but their political power has been transferred to elected politicians, and the political process follows democratic procedures.

Many nations that previously had absolute monarchies, such as Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Qatar, have transitioned to constitutional monarchies. However, in these cases, the monarch often retains tremendous powers, and the parliament's influence on political life may be considered negligible. For example, in Thailand, the monarch is protected by lèse-majesté, which carries strict criminal penalties for violators, enabling the monarch to play a role in politics.

Some other examples of constitutional monarchies in the modern world include Japan, considered the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy; Bhutan, which transitioned to a constitutional monarchy in 2008; Tonga, which was a majority-controlled constitutional monarchy until 2010; and Nepal, which abolished its monarchy in 2008. Additionally, the Kingdom of Hawaii transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy in 1840, and the German Empire was a constitutional monarchy from 1871 to 1918.

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Transitioning from absolute monarchy to republic

Absolute monarchies are distinct from constitutional monarchies, where the authority of the monarch is restricted by a legislature or balanced by other officials, such as a prime minister. In an absolute monarchy, the monarch is the sole decision-maker and holds absolute power. While some absolute monarchies have been supported by legal documents, they do not have constitutions in the way that constitutional monarchies do.

Transitioning from an absolute monarchy to a republic involves a shift from a system of monarchical rule to one of democratic governance, where power is vested in the people and their elected representatives. Here are the key steps and considerations for such a transition:

• Recognition of the Need for Change: The transition process often begins with a recognition that the current system of absolute monarchy is not meeting the needs of the people or is seen as illegitimate. This could be due to a variety of factors, including perceived despotism, a lack of representation, or a failure to uphold human rights and civil liberties.
• Organizing Reformist Forces: The presence of reformist forces, such as political parties, civil society organizations, or influential individuals, is crucial in advocating for change and presenting a viable alternative to absolute monarchy. These forces may work together to build a coalition that challenges the status quo and proposes a new system of governance.
• Negotiation and Dialogue: In some cases, a negotiated transition may be possible, where the monarch and other stakeholders engage in dialogue with reformist forces to agree on a roadmap for change. This could involve discussions on the scope and pace of reforms, the role of the monarchy in any interim arrangement, and the process for drafting a new constitution.
• Constitutional Reform or Creation: A critical step in transitioning to a republic is the adoption of a constitution that enshrines the rights and freedoms of citizens, defines the structure and powers of government, and outlines the electoral process. This constitution can be created through a constituent assembly or a specially elected body tasked with drafting it.
• Electoral Processes and Institution Building: Free and fair elections are a cornerstone of a republic. The transition process involves establishing independent electoral management bodies, ensuring a credible voter registration process, and guaranteeing the secrecy and security of the vote. Additionally, independent institutions, such as a judiciary and civil service, need to be established or reformed to support the new system of governance.
• Managing the Role of the Monarchy: The transition may result in the complete abolition of the monarchy, as seen in Nepal in 2008, or a reduction of the monarch's role to that of a ceremonial head of state, as in the United Kingdom. Negotiations and legal frameworks will be required to define the post-transition role, privileges, and responsibilities of the monarch and their family.
• Addressing Resistance and Ensuring Stability: Transitioning away from absolute monarchy can face resistance from those who benefit from the status quo or fear instability. Managing this resistance through dialogue, accommodation, and, if necessary, the use of legitimate force, is crucial for ensuring a stable transition.

The transition from absolute monarchy to a republic is a complex and often challenging process, requiring a careful balance between the forces of change and stability. It demands strong leadership, broad-based support, and a clear vision for the future governance of the nation.

Absolutist trends in 17th-century Europe

Absolutism, or the Age of Absolutism, is a term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites. This period, which lasted from around 1610 to 1789, coincided with the transition from feudalism to capitalism in Europe. Absolutist monarchs were characterised by their consolidation of power, the rise of state power, the unification of state laws, and a decrease in the influence of the church and nobility.

During the 17th century, several European monarchs wielded absolute power. Notable examples include the Spanish monarchs Philip II, Philip III, and Charles IV, who ruled during Spain's heyday as the strongest naval empire in Europe. These monarchs strongly believed in the divine right of kings, which held that their authority to rule was granted by God. This belief, coupled with their interpretation of St. Paul's image of the Christian body, allowed them to justify their absolute rule.

Another example of absolutist trends during this time is found in Russia, where the alliance between the autocratic monarchy, the church, and the aristocracy was seen as crucial for preserving social order and Russian statehood. This legitimised the rule of the Romanov dynasty, and Peter I ("the Great") further strengthened the power of the monarch by reducing the influence of the nobility and establishing a bureaucracy.

In Sweden, the absolute rule of Charles XI was instituted by the crown and the Riksdag to carry out the Great Reduction, which would have been hindered by the privy council, composed of the high nobility.

While some nations, like Russia, maintained absolute monarchies well into the 20th century, others transitioned to constitutional monarchies. For example, the Kingdom of Hawaii, initially an absolute monarchy, became a constitutional monarchy in 1840 when King Kamehameha III promulgated the kingdom's first constitution. Similarly, France transitioned from the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime to a constitutional monarchy with the French Constitution of 1791.

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