Malcolm Rivera
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, with roots that predate the formation of the country as a state. The UK's constitutional monarchy can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon era and the multiple kingdoms that existed prior to the formation of England as a single polity in the late first millennium CE. The 1628 Petition of Right, which established a series of personal liberties, is considered the founding document of the UK's modern constitutional monarchy. The monarchy was temporarily abolished during the Interregnum (1649-1660) following the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I, but it was restored in 1660 with the return of Charles II. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 further established the idea of Parliament as the ruling power, and the Bill of Rights of 1689 limited the powers of the monarch while setting out the rights of Parliament.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of establishment | 1688 (Glorious Revolution) or 1689 (Bill of Rights) |
| Current monarch | King Charles III |
| Current head of government | Rishi Sunak |
| Powers of the monarch | Ultimate legal responsibility for appointing and removing the Prime Minister and other ministers, dissolving Parliament, approving important laws, acting as head of the Armed Forces, being head of the Church of England, granting honours |
| Limitations on power | Requires royal assent for bills to become law, must be in communion with the Church of England, cannot be a Roman Catholic, must follow the rules and practices in place |
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What You'll Learn
The English Civil War and the execution of Charles I in 1649
The English Civil War was fought between supporters of King Charles I and the Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell. The civil war lasted seven years, from 1642 until 1649, and ended with the defeat of the Royalist army and the execution of Charles I.
Charles I became heir to the throne after his brother Henry died in 1612. He ascended the throne in 1625 following the death of his father, King James I. Charles' reign was marked by conflict with his Protestant subjects, who took issue with his marriage to a Catholic French princess, Henrietta Maria. He also repeatedly dissolved Parliament, choosing to rule without it from 1629 onwards. This led to a bitter power struggle with Parliament, culminating in the outbreak of civil war in 1642.
The war was a bloody and bitter conflict, with some families divided in their loyalties, and brother fighting brother. The Battle of Naseby in June 1645 marked a turning point in the war, with Cromwell's Parliamentarians gaining the upper hand. Charles surrendered to a Scottish army in 1646, and the fighting continued until 1649.
On 30 January 1649, King Charles I was beheaded outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall, London. He was convicted of treason and became the first European monarch to be put on trial for his life by his own subjects. His execution marked the end of the English monarchy, with the monarchy abolished and replaced by various forms of republican government during the Interregnum (1649-1660).
Charles' son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland but was forced to flee after being defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell seized power and became a military dictator. However, after Cromwell's death in 1658, his son had little interest in governing, and civil and military unrest led to a desire to restore the monarchy. The monarchy was eventually restored in 1660, and Charles II returned to Britain.
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The Commonwealth of England and the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell
The English Civil War ended with the execution of King Charles I in 1649, which also saw the monarchy abolished and replaced with the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell, a senior commander in the Parliamentarian army, was a leading advocate of the king's execution. In the autumn of 1649, Cromwell crossed to Ireland to deal with the Irish Confederate rebels. He then repeated his policy of massacre at Wexford, sparing no civilians. This led to most other towns surrendering at Cromwell's approach. He then departed for Ireland after nine months, leaving his successors with only a mopping-up operation.
After his victory in Ireland, Cromwell was put in charge of dealing with the Scots who had welcomed Charles I's son, Charles II, as the king of all of Great Britain and Ireland. Cromwell gained a stunning victory at the Battle of Dunbar on September 3, 1650, and chased Charles II and the Scottish army into England, winning another victory at Worcester. Cromwell's victories in Ireland, Scotland, and against the Dutch in 1652, made the Commonwealth a feared military power.
In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector, effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king. He ruled until his death in 1658 and was paid £100,000 a year (equivalent to £20,500,000 in 2023). Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector: "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, and spiritual and moral reform. While his domestic policies presumed no radical reforms, many focused on protecting public morality through religion. He also believed that social issues should be prioritised. Small-scale reform, such as that carried out on the judicial system, was outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Tax was slightly decreased, and he prioritised peace and ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. Cromwell encouraged Jews to return to England, 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, as he was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, England's leading commercial rival.
Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son, Richard Cromwell, who had little interest in governing and soon resigned, leading to civil and military unrest and a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored, and Charles II returned to Britain.
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The restoration of the monarchy in 1660
The restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660 saw the return of Charles II to the throne and marked the end of the Interregnum period (1649-1660) during which England was a republic. The restoration followed a period of instability under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard, who had both served as Lord Protector.
The English Civil War, which ended in 1649, culminated in the execution of Charles I, the overthrow of the monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland but was forced to flee after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell seized power and became Lord Protector, ruling until his death in 1658. Cromwell's son Richard, who succeeded him, lacked interest in governing and was unable to control the military and various political factions. This led to unrest and a desire to restore the monarchy.
General George Monck played a crucial role in the restoration. In February 1660, he marched his troops from Scotland to London and secured the readmission of members who had been excluded during Pride's Purge in 1648. On March 16, 1660, Monck dissolved the Long Parliament and called for elections for a new assembly, which became known as the Convention Parliament. This assembly consisted of both a House of Commons and a House of Lords, re-established after its abolition in 1649. On May 8, 1660, the Convention Parliament proclaimed that Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of his father, Charles I, in 1649.
On May 25, 1660, Charles II landed at Dover and entered London on May 29, his 30th birthday. To celebrate his return, May 29 was made a public holiday known as Oak Apple Day. Charles II was crowned at Westminster Abbey on April 23, 1661. The restoration of the monarchy was seen by some as "a divinely ordained miracle" and a return to the natural and divine order. The Indemnity and Oblivion Act of 1660 pardoned past treason against the crown but excluded those involved in the trial and execution of Charles I, leading to the regicides being hunted down and put on trial.
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The Bill of Rights in 1689
The English Bill of Rights of 1689, officially known as "An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown", is a significant component of the unwritten British constitution. It is one of the fundamental texts of English constitutional law, alongside the Magna Carta and the 1628 Petition of Right.
The Bill of Rights 1689 was enacted following the Glorious Revolution, which culminated in the installation of William III and Mary II as co-monarchs. This event marked the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in England, with power shifting away from the monarchy towards Parliament. The Bill of Rights further curtailed the power of the monarchy and excluded Roman Catholics from succession to the throne. It is important to note that the Bill of Rights did not establish a set of rights for citizens or residents, but rather outlined the rights of Parliamentarians against the Crown.
The 1689 Bill of Rights addressed specific issues related to the rights and liberties of subjects and the succession of the Crown. One of the key provisions of the Bill of Rights was the exclusion of Roman Catholics from the succession to the English throne. This decision was based on the belief that a Catholic monarch would pose a threat to the stability and welfare of the Protestant kingdom. The Sovereign was required to swear a coronation oath to uphold the Protestant religion.
The Bill of Rights also included a Declaration of Rights, which was offered to William and Mary by the Convention Parliament. The exact nature of this offer is a matter of debate among historians. Some argue that the acceptance of the Crown by William and Mary was conditional upon their acceptance of the Declaration of Rights, while others suggest that it was not presented as an explicit condition.
The 1689 Bill of Rights has had a lasting impact on the monarchy and the political system in England. It further restricted the power of the monarchy, ensuring that legislative power was exercised jointly by the monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, while executive power was vested in the monarch's government, which includes the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.
It is worth noting that the role and power of the monarchy have continued to evolve over time, and the modern UK monarchy is considered a ceremonial role, with the monarch serving as a figurehead and advisor to the Prime Minister.
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The modern-day role of the monarch
The monarch's role includes various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, and representational duties. They are the head of state, and as such, they appoint the prime minister and other ministers, open new sessions of parliament, and give royal assent to bills passed by parliament, signifying that they have become law. The monarch also chairs monthly meetings of the Privy Council, receives ambassadors, and makes other appointments, such as senior judges, acting on the advice of the government.
The monarch is also the head of the nation, acting as a focus for national identity, unity, and pride, providing a sense of stability and continuity, officially recognising success and excellence, and supporting the ideal of voluntary service. The King and other members of the royal family are patrons of over 1,000 charities and organisations in the UK and the Commonwealth, promoting charities throughout civil society. The monarchy is considered a "unique soft power and diplomatic asset" by the UK government, serving as an unofficial brand ambassador for British interests and values abroad and increasing tourism.
The monarch's power is regulated by the British constitution and constrained by convention and precedent. While the monarch has authority over the government, known as "His/Her Majesty's Government," this power may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament. In practice, the monarch's role is limited to functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the prime minister. The monarch could, in theory, unilaterally dismiss the prime minister, but in reality, the prime minister's term ends only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation.
The monarch is also the head of the Armed Forces and the titular head of the Church of England, which has its own legislative, judicial, and executive structures. Additionally, the monarch is the head of the Commonwealth and the head of state in 14 other Commonwealth realms beyond the UK, including Australia, Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand.
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Frequently asked questions
England became a constitutional monarchy following the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
The Glorious Revolution established a constitutional monarchy with power shifting to Parliament. William III and Mary II were installed as co-monarchs.
The Bill of Rights of 1689 limited the powers of the monarch and set out the rights of Parliament. It required regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It also set out certain rights for individuals, including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment.
The UK is currently a democratic constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch who has no power except to advise the Prime Minister and give formal consent.
