Jonah Patel
The Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648, is widely regarded as the foundation of modern international relations and diplomacy. The treaty ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, bringing an end to more than a century of religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The treaty introduced the concepts of state sovereignty, mediation, and diplomacy, with the official recognition of diplomats by the agreeing states. The Peace of Westphalia also confirmed the Peace of Augsburg, granting religious tolerance to Lutherans in the Holy Roman Empire. This marked a significant turning point towards religious pluralism and secularisation, as the agreement allowed rulers to choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism, while their subjects were no longer forced to follow the same religion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin of modern international relations | The Peace of Westphalia is identified as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, including the inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. |
| End of wars | The Peace of Westphalia ended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic and the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire. |
| Religious tolerance | The treaty brought an end to more than a century of fighting between Catholics and Protestants, granting religious tolerance and allowing rulers to choose the official religion of their state. |
| Secularisation | The settlement marked a shift from religious conflict to disputes among secular "sovereigns," indicating a move towards secularisation. |
| Recognition of diplomacy | The Peace of Westphalia officially recognised diplomacy and negotiation as alternatives to war, marking the start of the professionalisation of diplomacy. |
| Power redistribution | The treaty redistributed power, with some arguing that it stripped Emperor Ferdinand III of power and gave it to the rulers of the Imperial estates. |
| National self-determination | The Peace of Westphalia created a basis for national self-determination and the growth of new powers, particularly in component parts of the former empire, such as Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. |
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What You'll Learn
The Peace of Westphalia
The Thirty Years' War was a series of wars in Central Europe, initially between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, which developed into a wider conflict involving most of the great powers. The Eighty Years' War, or the Dutch War of Independence, was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands.
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The Treaty of Westphalia
The Peace of Westphalia, or the Treaty of Westphalia, refers to a series of peace treaties signed between 1644 and 1648 in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The main peace negotiations took place in Westphalia, with the two cities maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones.
The Thirty Years' War was the most deadly of the European wars of religion, centred on the Holy Roman Empire. The Eighty Years' War was a prolonged struggle for the independence of the Protestant-majority Dutch Republic (the modern Netherlands), supported by Protestant-majority England, against Catholic-dominated Spain and Portugal.
The Peace of Westphalia is often credited with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty. It also marked the start of a new era in international affairs, where armed struggle was no longer defined as a contest between different confessional truths but rather a dispute among secular "sovereigns". The final settlement of armed disputes was no longer the province of military contractors and theologians.
The Peace of Westphalia guaranteed the right to practice any of the recognized denominations: Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. It also set up new rules for the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court) and stipulated that half its judges must be Protestant. The independence of the Dutch Republic, which practised religious toleration, also provided a safe haven for European Jews.
However, it is important to note that the Peace of Westphalia did not entirely end conflicts arising out of the Thirty Years' War. Fighting continued between France and Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, and the Dutch-Portuguese War went on until 1663.
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Westphalian sovereignty
The Peace of Westphalia, which brought an end to the Thirty Years' War, is often considered the origin of modern diplomacy and the starting point of the "classic" period of international diplomacy. The war, which was the most deadly of the European wars of religion, centred on the Holy Roman Empire and was fought between Catholics and Protestants. The Peace of Westphalia, negotiated from 1644 to 1648, marked a shift in international affairs, with armed struggles now defined as disputes among secular "sovereigns" rather than conflicts between different confessional truths.
The concept of "Westphalian sovereignty" is used to refer to the basic legal principles that underpin the modern state system. It implies a system of sovereign state entities with a monopoly on the use of force within their mutually recognised territories, with formal diplomatic ties between heads of state and governments. The principle also establishes a separation between the domestic and international spheres, with states refraining from intervening in the domestic affairs of other states.
However, the applicability of the term "Westphalian sovereignty" to the 1648 treaties has been challenged by some historians and political scientists. They argue that the treaties do not contain explicit references to sovereignty, non-intervention, or the legal equality of states. Instead, they suggest that the treaties limited the sovereignty of several states within the Holy Roman Empire and did not introduce a new coherent state system.
Despite these debates, the Peace of Westphalia did settle many outstanding European issues at the time. It established religious tolerance for Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism, and set up new rules for the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court). The Peace of Westphalia also recognised the independence of the Dutch Republic, which provided a safe haven for European Jews.
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The Thirty Years' War
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War and brought about significant changes in Europe. It settled many outstanding European issues at the time and confirmed the Peace of Augsburg, granting religious tolerance to Lutherans in the empire. It also removed the ius reformandi, allowing rulers to choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism while no longer forcing subjects to follow the designated official religion. The Peace of Westphalia is also identified by some scholars as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, including the idea of Westphalian sovereignty, which asserts the inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states.
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International relations
The Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648, is widely regarded as the foundation of modern international relations and diplomacy. The treaty brought an end to the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch and the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire, marking a significant turning point in the path towards religious pluralism and secularisation.
Prior to the Treaty of Westphalia, war was the primary means of conflict resolution, and diplomacy was often absent or depreciated. The treaty introduced the concepts of state sovereignty, mediation, and the official recognition of diplomacy, with states accepting each other as sovereign entities. This marked the start of the new professionalisation of diplomacy, where peaceful negotiation and conflict resolution through reason, persuasion, and tact became the preferred approach.
The Peace of Westphalia also had a significant impact on the Holy Roman Empire, with power shifting from Emperor Ferdinand III to the rulers of the Imperial Estates, who gained the ability to participate in critical policy decisions, including matters of peace and war. Additionally, the treaty promoted religious tolerance by allowing rulers to choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism, while subjects were no longer forced to follow the religion of their ruler.
The Treaty of Westphalia also facilitated the growth of new powers, particularly in the component parts of the Holy Roman Empire, such as Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. The recognition of national self-determination and the inviolability of borders became crucial principles in international relations, shaping the interactions between sovereign states.
While the Treaty of Westphalia is considered a significant milestone, it is important to note that negotiations and peacemaking efforts had existed before this treaty. However, Westphalia standardised and formalised these practices, setting a precedent for future international relations and diplomacy.
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Frequently asked questions
The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed in 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. The treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic.
The Peace of Westphalia is considered by many to be the start of modern international relations and diplomacy. The treaties introduced the concepts of state sovereignty, mediation between nations, and diplomacy. The agreements also confirmed the importance of religious tolerance, allowing rulers to choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism, and their subjects were not forced to follow this religion.
The Peace of Westphalia created a basis for national self-determination and facilitated the growth of new powers in the region, especially Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. The treaties also marked the start of the new professionalization of diplomacy, with the official recognition of diplomats as states accepted each other as sovereign entities.
