Malcolm Rivera
Diplomacy is a vital tool in the modern world, with far-reaching implications for international relations and global cooperation. It is the art of negotiation and dialogue, conducted by diplomats, that seeks to resolve conflicts and promote peace. Diplomacy has evolved since its ancient origins, with the post-Renaissance European state system shaping its modern practices. Today, diplomacy encompasses a wide range of issues, from economic aid and human rights to international terrorism, and plays a critical role in preventing wars and managing shared global challenges. The success of diplomacy can be seen in the absence of major wars since 1945, and its ability to foster understanding, enhance trade and cultural exchanges, and shape foreign policies. Diplomats, with their skills in negotiation and communication, are key players in this process, influencing the behaviour of foreign governments and fostering international cooperation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | "A process between actors (diplomats, usually representing a state) who exist within a system (international relations) and engage in private and public dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner." |
| History | The rules of modern diplomacy were developed between 1500 and 1700. |
| By the 20th century, diplomatic practices had expanded beyond bilateral relations to include summit meetings, international conferences, and the work of international civil servants. | |
| The term "diplomacy" is derived from the ancient Greek "diplōma", meaning a "folded document" conferring privileges on the bearer. | |
| Practitioners | Diplomats are the primary practitioners of diplomacy, but not the only ones. |
| In the United States, it is common for presidents to appoint major supporters to desirable ambassadorships. | |
| In the past, figures such as German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for their international diplomacy. | |
| Functions | Diplomacy seeks to preserve peace and prevent war. |
| Diplomats help leaders understand the attitudes and actions of foreigners, and develop strategies to shape their behaviour. | |
| Diplomacy can promote exchanges that enhance trade, culture, wealth, and knowledge. | |
| Diplomacy can also be coercive, threatening punitive measures or the use of force while remaining overtly non-violent. | |
| Types | Quiet diplomacy involves influencing another state through secret negotiations or refraining from taking action. |
| Soft power, or "hearts and minds diplomacy", involves cultivating relationships and respect to gain influence. | |
| Panda diplomacy is a specific example of soft power, where China gifted panda bears to other nations. | |
| Challenges | Diplomacy must navigate an ever-growing list of shared challenges, such as economic aid, hunger, drug trafficking, human rights, and international terrorism. |
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What You'll Learn
Soft power and 'hearts and minds diplomacy'
Soft power diplomacy is a concept developed by Joseph Nye, and it refers to a country's ability to influence other nations through attraction, persuasion, and cultural appeal, rather than coercion or force. It is often associated with the country's image and public relations, and it can be a powerful tool for achieving foreign policy objectives and expanding influence globally.
The United States, for example, has traditionally used soft power to promote its values and ideals, shape the behaviour of other countries, and achieve its foreign policy goals without resorting to military force or economic sanctions. Post-World War II, the Marshall Plan was implemented to develop the economy of war-torn European countries, but it also served to shape their culture and societal priorities, thus increasing US soft power. Similarly, China's Belt and Road Initiative goes beyond economic and infrastructure projects, influencing other aspects of the recipient countries and expanding China's soft power.
Soft power can be accumulated through hosting major sports events, like the Olympics or the FIFA World Cup, which provide a global platform for cultural exchange and the showcasing of a country's values and traditions. Qatar, for instance, has successfully utilized its wealth to develop its soft power tools, including through the Al-Jazeera television network and various educational diplomacy initiatives.
However, soft power is not without its challenges and limitations. It can be costly and time-consuming to accumulate, and a country's image, a key factor in soft power, can be easily damaged and lost. In recent years, the rise of authoritarian countries has also brought about a new form of power, termed "sharp power," which involves manipulating culture, education, and media to influence democracies.
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International summits and conferences
Summitry, or the practice of holding summits, serves an important symbolic role in international relations. It provides a space for trust-building between leaders and states, and the exchange of viewpoints and mutual understanding. Even if no tangible outcomes are immediately evident, summits generally play a positive role in interstate relations. For example, the Cyprus-Egypt-Greece summits, which began in 2014 with a focus on energy cooperation, eventually expanded to include economic cooperation, security, tourism, and migration. This trilateral format of cooperation was then promoted to other countries in the region, such as Jordan and Israel.
However, summits can also be risky, as they raise expectations. If they are poorly prepared or fail to produce tangible outcomes, they can be perceived as failures and may lead to negative perceptions of the political leaders involved.
International organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Arab League, and the European Union (EU), often sponsor conferences and encourage coalition diplomacy. These conferences address specific problems, with specialists playing a larger role in more technical discussions. For instance, the 1973-1975 Geneva Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, which led to the Helsinki Accords, involved all 35 states actively negotiating under a unanimity rule.
Diplomatic conferences continue to be held to negotiate and adopt multilateral treaties of particular significance to the international community. These conferences are typically convened by a resolution of the UN General Assembly, upon the recommendation of one of its subsidiary bodies, and remain independent, interstate conferences governed by their own rules of procedure and general international law.
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Bilateral relations between sovereign states
Diplomacy is defined as the conduct of official and usually bilateral relations between sovereign states. While diplomacy has expanded beyond bilateral relations in the modern era, most diplomacy is still conducted at the bilateral level.
The United States has a history of bilateral agreements with Panama, beginning with the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903, which established the US's right to build and own the Panama Canal. China and ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) have also been developing their bilateral relationship, with environmental protection as a key area of cooperation.
While classic diplomatic procedures such as diplomatic correspondence and embassies are still important, the development of transport and telecommunications has transformed the methods of communication and direct personal contact in bilateral relations. The flexibility and ease of bilateral diplomacy, compared to multilateral systems, make it a preferred method for powerful states to exert their influence.
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Unofficial diplomacy by non-governmental elements
Public diplomacy also includes people's diplomacy, which seeks to cultivate informal, non-state ties to develop "foreign friends" who will advocate for improved relations with their governments. A notable example of people's diplomacy is the ping-pong diplomacy between China and the United States in 1971, which led to an increase in exchanges through non-governmental agencies and was well-received by American civil society groups.
Another form of unofficial diplomacy is quiet diplomacy, which involves influencing another state's behaviour through secret negotiations or refraining from taking specific actions. This approach can be used to avoid appearing aggressive or to prevent certain outcomes. For instance, South Africa engaged in quiet diplomacy with Zimbabwe to avoid being perceived as "bullying" its neighbouring country.
In the 21st century, public diplomacy is influenced by fractal globalization, preemptive military invasions, and the increasing role of global non-state actors, such as terror networks and bloggers, who challenge state-driven policies and discourses. International broadcasting remains a critical tool for weaker states to challenge the information monopoly of more powerful nations.
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The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
The convention's primary objective is to facilitate "the development of friendly relations" among governments through a uniform set of practices and principles. It codifies the longstanding custom of diplomatic immunity, granting diplomatic missions privileges that enable diplomats to perform their functions without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country. This custom of diplomatic immunity dates back to ancient times, with Greek and Roman governments granting special status to envoys.
The convention also includes provisions regarding the acquisition of nationality and the compulsory settlement of disputes. The head of the mission, the staff of the mission, and their families are prohibited from acquiring the nationality of the receiving country (Article 5). In the event of disputes arising from the interpretation of the treaty, they may be brought before the International Court of Justice.
As of June 2020, 193 states are parties to the Vienna Convention, encompassing all UN member states except Palau and South Sudan, as well as the UN observer states of the Holy See and the State of Palestine.
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Frequently asked questions
Diplomacy is a process between actors (usually diplomats representing a state) who engage in private and public dialogue to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner.
Some examples of diplomacy in action include the use of soft power or "hearts and minds diplomacy", quiet diplomacy, and science diplomacy. For instance, China's practice of gifting panda bears to other countries is an example of soft power. Quiet diplomacy can be seen in South Africa's relations with Zimbabwe, where it refrains from taking certain actions to avoid appearing "bullying". An example of science diplomacy is international collaboration to address common problems and build partnerships.
Diplomacy has evolved from the ancient Greek city-states dispatching envoys to negotiate specific issues to the modern practices of the post-Renaissance European state system. By the 20th century, diplomatic practices had expanded to cover summit meetings, international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, and the work of international civil servants.
Diplomacy is essential for preserving peace, enhancing trade, culture, wealth, and knowledge, and promoting international cooperation. It is a cost-effective, predictable, and often more effective strategy than war for achieving a state's objectives. Diplomacy has prevented nuclear weapons proliferation and offered alternatives to major conflicts.
