The Making Of A Constitutional Monarch: Charles Ii's Legacy

Charles II was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1660 until his death in 1685. He was the eldest son of Charles I, who was executed at the climax of the English Civil War in 1649. The monarchy was abolished and England entered a period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, with a republican government led by Oliver Cromwell. Charles II spent the next nine years in exile, during which time he raised a small, ill-equipped army of exiled subjects. In 1660, with the country in danger of being torn apart, Charles was restored to the throne. This marked the return to a constitutional monarchy, with Charles ruling closely with Parliament.

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Charles II's exile and return

Charles II was the eldest surviving son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. He was eight years old when the Civil War broke out and was with his father at the Battle of Edgehill in 1642 and in Oxford. In 1645, he tried to fight his father's battles in the west of England. In 1648, he made strenuous efforts to save his father, but Charles I was executed in 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War.

After his father's execution, Charles II was proclaimed king by the Scots in defiance of the English republic. He was crowned at Scone in 1651, but the Scottish army was defeated by the English under Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Worcester in the same year. Charles escaped and fled to France, where he spent the next nine years in exile. During his time in France, he continued his education, studying physics, chemistry, and mathematics. He also assisted his childhood friend, the Earl of Buckingham, with his experiments in chemistry and alchemy.

In 1656, Charles made the Treaty of Brussels with Spain, gathering Spanish support for a restoration in return for his contribution to the war against France. Charles raised a small, poorly equipped army from his exiled subjects. However, he was unable to obtain sufficient finance or support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government.

In 1660, Charles was invited back to London and restored to the throne. The Convention Parliament assembled on 25 April 1660 and welcomed the Declaration of Breda, in which Charles promised leniency and tolerance, including liberty of conscience and a pledge not to exile past enemies. The Militia Act of 1661 gave Charles unprecedented authority to maintain a standing army, and the Corporation Act of 1661 allowed him to purge the boroughs of dissident officials.

Charles II's reign was marked by the struggle between Anglicans, Catholics, and Dissenters, and he worked to settle religious dissension. He had no legitimate children, and his Roman Catholic brother, James, succeeded him, causing alarm among the Scots.

The English Interregnum

The Interregnum was marked by a series of political experiments as the country's rulers attempted to establish a workable constitution without a monarch. The main ruler of England during this period was Oliver Cromwell, who established himself as the first Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Cromwell's rule was defined by the Instrument of Government, which he wrote in 1653, and which established the supremacy of the will of the upper class of English society. Cromwell's relationship with Parliament was troubled, with disputes over the nature of the constitution, control of the armed forces, and religious toleration.

The Puritan movement, which had evolved as a rejection of the "Catholicisation" of the Church of England, gained prominence during the Interregnum. Puritan views, including an austere lifestyle and restrictions on pastimes such as theatre and gambling, were imposed on the country. However, Cromwell gradually lost the support he had gained during the civil war, with some feeling disenfranchised by his failure to abolish the aristocracy.

The Interregnum ended due to three main reasons. Firstly, Oliver Cromwell's son, Richard, did not want to become the Lord Protector. Secondly, the people were discontent with the Interregnum government, and the leader of Scotland asked Charles II to return as King. Finally, General George Monck, the English military governor of Scotland, marched to London at the head of his troops and oversaw the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II.

Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda in April 1660, expressing his desire for a general amnesty, liberty of conscience, an equitable settlement of land disputes, and full payment of arrears to the army. On this basis, Charles was proclaimed King in 1660, marking the end of the Interregnum and the start of the Restoration.

The Restoration of the monarchy

During the Interregnum, England was under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell's forces extinguished all significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland, and he forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653, establishing the Protectorate with himself as leader. Cromwell's death in 1658 did little to improve the prospects of the monarchy's restoration, as he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard.

However, one of Cromwell's leading generals, George Monck, recognized that the country was at risk of being torn apart under Cromwell's successors. With his formidable army, Monck created a situation favourable to the restoration of Charles II in 1660. Charles had spent years in exile, hopping between continental courts and begging for favours and finances. He formed a ragtag army of exiled subjects, which served as the nucleus of the post-Restoration army.

In April 1660, Charles issued the Declaration of Breda, expressing his desire for a general amnesty, liberty of conscience, an equitable settlement of land disputes, and full payment of arrears to the army. The actual terms were left to a free parliament, and on this basis, Charles was proclaimed king in May 1660. He landed at Dover on May 25 and arrived in London on his 30th birthday to great rejoicing. The Restoration was accompanied by social change, including the reopening of theatres and the emergence of "Restoration comedy" as a recognizable genre.

Charles II's reign was marked by religious conflicts and scientific advances. He managed to avert open rebellion despite pleasing no one with his religious favouritism. His rule also saw the Great Plague of London in 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666, from which the city quickly sprang anew, with science and commerce offering hope for the future.

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Charles's religious tolerance

Charles II (29 May 1630–6 February 1685) was King of Scotland from 1649 until 1651 and King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 until his death in 1685. Charles's reign was marked by his religious tolerance and his attempts to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters.

Charles's early years were marked by the Civil War against the Puritans and his subsequent exile in France. He resisted the attempts of his mother and sister, Henrietta Anne, to convert him to Catholicism, remaining loyal to his Protestant faith. In 1649, after his father, Charles I, was executed, Charles II was proclaimed king by the Scots, who demanded that he establish Presbyterianism as the state religion in all three of his kingdoms. Charles reluctantly agreed to support the Solemn League and Covenant, which authorised Presbyterian church governance across Britain.

In 1656, Charles formed an alliance with Spain, and in 1660, he was invited to return to Britain and was proclaimed king. Charles's political adaptability and religious tolerance helped to maintain stability during his reign. In his Declaration of Breda in April 1660, he promised leniency and tolerance, including liberty of conscience and a pledge that Anglican church policy would not be harsh. He also vowed to rule in cooperation with Parliament, which would govern economic policy and control the granting of money to the king.

In 1662, Charles issued a declaration granting toleration to Catholics and Dissenters, but Parliament refused to ratify it, leaving these groups with fewer political rights and prohibited from occupying political office. Despite this setback, Charles continued to pursue a policy of religious tolerance. In 1670, he entered into the Treaty of Dover with his cousin, King Louis XIV of France, promising to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date. In 1672, he attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but Parliament forced him to withdraw it.

The Clarendon Code

The first act, the Corporation Act of 1661, prohibited Nonconformists from holding municipal or civil offices by requiring all officials to take Anglican communion and reject the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. This effectively excluded those with differing religious beliefs from positions of power within cities or corporations.

The second act, the Act of Uniformity of 1662, standardised religious practices by mandating the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer in all religious services. It prescribed the form of public prayers, administration of sacraments, and other rites according to the Church of England. This act led to the resignation of over 2000 clergy who refused to comply.

The third act, the Conventicle Act of 1664, targeted religious gatherings outside the Anglican Church. It made meetings for Nonconformist worship illegal, even in private houses, if more than four outsiders were present. This effectively forced non-Anglicans to practice their religion in privacy or not at all.

The fourth and final act, the Five-Mile Act of 1665, isolated Nonconformist ministers by enforcing strict location restrictions. They were forbidden from coming within five miles of incorporated towns or their former livings, preventing them from teaching in schools and limiting their influence.

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