The Evolution Of Constitutional Monarchy: A Historical Perspective

A constitutional monarchy is a system of government in which a monarch acts as the head of state, while a prime minister is the head of government. The monarch's power is limited by a constitution, and they may hold ceremonial, symbolic, or formal roles. The first constitutional monarchy in the world was likely that of the Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people who lived during the Bronze Age. The Hittite king or queen shared authority with an assembly called the Panku, which handled legislative and judicial matters. While the concept of constitutional monarchy has evolved over time, it remains a significant form of government in various countries today.

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The Hittite Empire was the first constitutional monarchy

The Hittite Empire, which reached its peak in the mid-14th century BC, is considered by some scholars to be the first constitutional monarchy in history. The Hittites were an Anatolian Indo-European people who settled in modern-day Turkey in the early 2nd millennium BC. They formed a series of polities in north-central Anatolia, including the kingdom of Kussara (before 1750 BC), the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and an empire centred on the capital Hattusa (around 1650 BC).

The Hittite monarchy changed from an absolute monarchy, where the king had control over all facets of life and was considered the "Great King", to a constitutional monarchy where the king's power was constrained by a constitution. This change likely occurred during the transition from the Old to the New Kingdom. The king had to share his authority with an assembly called the "Panku", which was equivalent to a modern-day legislature or deliberative assembly. The Panku was composed of members from scattered noble families who acted as representatives of their subjects. While the Panku primarily handled legal matters, they also played a role in electing a new king, as there was no clear line of succession.

The Hittite Empire is known for its strong legal system, where even royalty was not above the law. For example, Prince Hattusilli, brother to the king, stood trial after being sued for allegedly casting a curse on his rival, Armatarhunta. This indicates that the Hittite monarchy recognised the concept of rule of law, a key characteristic of a constitutional monarchy.

In addition to the Panku, the king presided over many cities and towns, each with its own leader who reported to him. Conquered cities were typically established as semi-autonomous city-states, with the ruler as a vassal to the Hittite king. The Hittites were also pioneers in the art of international politics, conducting treaties and alliances with neighbouring states.

While the Hittite Empire is often credited as the first constitutional monarchy, some have questioned this claim due to the limited historical knowledge about the Hittites. However, it is clear that the Hittite monarchy exhibited certain characteristics of a constitutional monarchy, such as recognising the rule of law and implementing checks on the monarch's power through the Panku assembly.

The UK is a constitutional monarchy

The UK's monarchy is the oldest form of government in the country, and the current monarch is King Charles III, who ascended the throne following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, his mother, in 2022. The monarch and their immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, and representational duties. The monarch's role includes bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister.

The UK's constitutional monarchy means that while the Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected Parliament. The monarch has a largely ceremonial role and acts as a symbol of national unity and pride, providing stability and continuity. The monarch's powers are outlined in the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom and include being the head of the Armed Forces and the Church of England.

The UK's monarchy has evolved over time, with the active political leadership transferring from the monarch to ministers accountable to Parliament. The monarch's role is limited by democratic principles and they must act in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The UK is one of several constitutional monarchies in the world, including other Commonwealth realms such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

France adopted constitutional monarchy in 1791

The first constitutional monarchy in the world was likely that of the Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people who lived during the Bronze Age. The Hittite king or queen had to share their authority with an assembly called the 'Panku', which was the equivalent of a modern-day deliberative body.

In more recent times, France adopted a constitutional monarchy in 1791, following the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. On 3 September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly forced King Louis XVI to accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus turning the absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. This constitution was the first written constitution in France and was created by the National Assembly during the French Revolution. It retained the monarchy but established that sovereignty resided in the Legislative Assembly, which was elected by a system of indirect voting. The constitution also abolished the nobility of France and declared all men to be equal before the law.

The French Constitution of 1791 redefined the organisation of the French government, citizenship, and the limits of the government's powers. It established a separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The National Assembly, which was the legislative body, included members elected by indirect voting. The king and royal ministers made up the executive branch, while the judiciary was independent of the other two branches.

The new constitution also made changes to the local geographic divisions, formally abolishing the previous feudal system and dividing the territory of the French state into several new administrative regions. Additionally, it established a distinction between "active" and "passive" citizens. Active citizens, who were over the age of 25 and paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour, had political rights. On the other hand, passive citizens only had civil rights.

However, the constitutional monarchy in France was short-lived. King Louis XVI's use of his veto powers to protect non-juring priests and his refusal to raise militias in defence of the revolutionary government led to the monarchy being suspended on 11 August 1792. The newly elected National Convention, elected under universal male suffrage, abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, ending 203 years of consecutive Bourbon rule over France.

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Germany adopted the British model after unification

The first constitutional monarchy in the world was that of the Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people dating back to the Bronze Age. The Hittite king or queen had to share their authority with an assembly called the "Panku", which was equivalent to a modern-day deliberative body.

Now, onto the topic of Germany's adoption of the British model after unification. Germany's unification was a process of building the first German nation-state with federal features, based on the concept of "Lesser Germany" or "Kleindeutsche Losung", excluding multi-ethnic Austria and its German-speaking parts. This process commenced on 18 August 1866, with the adoption of the North German Confederation Treaty, establishing the North German Confederation, dominated by Prussia. The unification was officially announced on 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France, with the proclamation of the German Empire, also known as the German Reich, comprising 25 member states and led by the Kingdom of Prussia.

The British model of constitutional monarchy, which Germany adopted after unification, is characterised by a monarch who shares power with a constitutionally organised government. The monarch may be the ceremonial leader or the de facto head of state, with the constitution allocating the rest of the government's power to the legislature and judiciary. This model provides for a visible symbol of national unity while ensuring that the monarch does not personally set public policy or choose political leaders.

Germany's adoption of the British model after unification meant that the German Emperor, King William I of Prussia, had a largely ceremonial role, while the Reichstag and Bundesrat represented the people and the 25 states, respectively. The Reichstag's power was theoretically significant, as it could reject any bill. However, in practice, its power was limited by the government's financial strategies and its approval of the military budget. The Bundesrat, on the other hand, represented the conservative interests of Prussia, with its members elected under a restricted three-class suffrage system, giving the richest 15% of the male population control over approximately 85% of the delegates.

The German Empire's constitution, which came into force on 18 January 1871, reflected the predominantly rural nature of Germany at the time and the authoritarian tendencies of Bismarck, a member of the Junker landowning elite. The constitution included provisions for universal manhood suffrage and a secret ballot, but the constituencies established in 1867 and 1871 were never adjusted to reflect population shifts, resulting in rural areas retaining a disproportionate share of power as urbanisation progressed.

Other constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Norway, Japan, etc

The first constitutional monarchy is thought to have been that of the Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people who lived during the Bronze Age. The Hittite king or queen had to share their authority with an assembly called the 'Panku'.

Other constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Norway, and Japan, as well as several other countries. Belgium is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, with the formal title of its king being the 'King of the Belgians'. The Belgian monarchy is not merely symbolic, as the monarch participates in directing the affairs of the state, particularly when the king's will coincides with that of the ministers. The Belgian monarch is also the commander-in-chief of the Belgian Armed Forces. Norway's constitutional monarchy operates slightly differently, with the King chairing special meetings of the cabinet. While the monarch is the nominal chief executive, they are bound by convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet.

Japan is the only country with a remaining emperor, and its monarchy is considered a constitutional one. Japan's monarchy was influenced by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who in 1820 gave a philosophical justification for the concept of a constitutional monarchy. According to Hegel, the function of a constitutional monarch is to embody the national character and provide constitutional continuity in times of emergency.

Other constitutional monarchies include Cambodia, Jordan, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Thailand.

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