Isabella Carter
US diplomacy between 1865 and 1929 was marked by the American Civil War, the Spanish-American War, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt's voyage to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, and the acquisition of Florida. During the Civil War, the United States prevented other powers from recognizing the Confederacy, which counted on Britain and France to enter the war on its side. Elite opinion in Britain tended to favour the Confederacy, while public opinion tended to support the United States. Following the Civil War, the US demanded reparations from Britain for damages done by warships, and the Juárez government secured a $30 million loan in New York City for the purchase of war material. In 1895, yellow journalism played a role in US diplomacy, and in 1898, the country was involved in the Spanish-American War.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time Period | 1865–1929 |
| US Diplomacy and the Telegraph | Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt’s voyage to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia |
| US Diplomacy and Yellow Journalism | The Spanish-American War |
| US Civil War | 1861–1865 |
| US-Confederate Relations | The Trent Affair, French Intervention in Mexico, Alabama Claims |
| US-Britain Relations | Tense due to warships built by British shipyards for the Confederacy, such as the CSS Alabama |
| US-Britain Trade | Large-scale trade of grain, manufactured items, and munitions |
| US-France Relations | Confederate diplomatic efforts shifted focus to France in 1863, Second French Intervention in Mexico under Napoleon III |
| US-Mexico Relations | US provided weapons, supplies, hospital care, and volunteers to the Juárez government after the Civil War |
| US-Haiti Relations | US Marines landed in Cap-Haïtien to protect the American consulate during revolts against Geffrard |
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What You'll Learn
US diplomacy and the telegraph
The period between 1865 and 1929 in the US was marked by significant diplomatic shifts, influenced by technological advancements, economic growth, and the aftermath of internal and external conflicts. One of the most notable factors during this era was the adoption and impact of the telegraph on diplomacy.
The Telegraph's Impact on Diplomacy
The telegraph, derived from the Greek words 'têle' (at a distance) and 'gráphein' (to write), revolutionized diplomatic communications in the 19th century. The first mechanical telegraph, or semaphore, was invented in 1792 by Claude Chappe in France, enabling messages to be transmitted over long distances using a codebook of symbols. By 1844, France had an extensive network of semaphore lines, with similar systems emerging in Great Britain and Germany, primarily for military use. The electric telegraph, however, evolved gradually, with contributions from inventors like Volta, Sömmerring, Ampère, and Baron Pavel Schilling, who developed an electric telegraph in 1832. The electric telegraph has been dubbed the "internet of the 19th century" due to its transformative impact on communication.
The establishment of the telegraph office by the US Department of State in 1866, shortly after the advent of transatlantic telegraphy, ushered in a new era for diplomacy. The technology brought diplomacy into the high-speed age of electricity, offering both advantages and challenges. On the one hand, policymakers could receive information and respond to crises within a few hours, even in distant parts of the world. On the other hand, the rapid pace of communication created new time pressures, as diplomats had to adapt to quicker decision-making cycles and manage the expectations of an informed public through newspapers.
The telegraph also led to increased centralization of foreign ministries. Ambassadors, who previously had significant autonomy due to the slow communication channels, now had easier access to instructions from their superiors, reducing their independence. This shift altered the function of diplomats, as they were now valued more for their efficiency in conveying messages than for their autonomous decision-making abilities.
US Diplomacy and Foreign Relations
During this period, the US navigated complex foreign relations, including tense relations with Britain and its Canadian colonies due to disputes over warships and Confederate raids. The Alabama Claims and the demands for reparations from the Civil War strained US-British relations. Additionally, the US faced challenges in its relations with France, as described in Bemis's "The Diplomacy of the American Revolution," warning of entanglement in European politics. The Dawes Plan, led by American banker Charles G. Dawes, aimed to resolve the crisis of World War I reparations between France and Germany, leading to a brief period of economic recovery in the late 1920s.
Economic Growth and Expansionism
The post-Civil War era witnessed a surge in American exports and imports, with overseas markets becoming increasingly important. This economic growth fueled American expansionism, as businesses, religious leaders, and Progressive reformers sought to extend their influence abroad. The Spanish-American War in 1898 further highlighted the growing American interest in foreign affairs and imperialism.
In summary, the adoption of the telegraph during this period significantly shaped US diplomacy, accelerating the pace of communications and centralizing decision-making. This technological advancement, coupled with economic growth and evolving foreign relations, set the stage for the US to play a more active and complex role in world affairs during and after this period.
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US-German relations
In the 1870s, after the unification of Germany, both countries built world-class navies and began imperialistic expansion around the world. This led to a small-scale conflict over the Samoan Islands in the Pacific, which provided an ideal location for coaling stations needed by steamships in the South Pacific. The American and German warships faced off, but both sides were damaged by a cyclone in 1889, and the crisis was resolved in Berlin. In the 1880s, German achievements in public schooling and higher education greatly impressed American educators, and thousands of advanced American students, especially scientists and historians, studied at elite German universities.
In the early 20th century, the rise of the German Navy and its role in Latin America and the Caribbean troubled American military strategists. Relations were sometimes tense, as in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902-03, but all incidents were peacefully resolved. During the First World War, the US tried to remain neutral but provided more trade and financial support to Britain and the other Allies. Germany worked to undermine American interests in Mexico, and in 1917, a German offer of a military alliance against the US contributed to America's decision to enter the war.
After the war, the Dawes Plan, chaired by the American banker Charles G. Dawes, attempted to resolve the crisis of World War I reparations. It provided for a staggered schedule for Germany's payment of war reparations, a large loan to stabilise the German currency, and ended the occupation of the Ruhr. It resulted in a brief period of economic recovery in the second half of the 1920s.
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US-British relations
The United States and the United Kingdom have had a long and complex diplomatic history, with their relationship evolving significantly between 1865 and 1929.
During the American Civil War (1861-1865), US-British relations were strained, with the Trent Affair in 1861 bringing the two nations to the brink of war. The US Navy seized two Confederate diplomats from a British civilian vessel, leading to British demands for their release and preparations for war. However, President Lincoln eventually released the diplomats, de-escalating the situation. Despite officially maintaining neutrality, Britain's economic ties with the Confederate states caused tension with the US, with some American diplomats accusing Britain of prolonging the war.
In the post-Civil War era, relations gradually improved. The British government supported Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, and the two nations avoided further escalation of tensions. By the 1880s, the US economy had surpassed Britain's, and New York City became the world's leading financial center in the 1920s, shifting the power dynamics between the two countries.
During World War I, the US and the UK became allies, with American troops entering the conflict in 1917. This marked a significant turning point in their relationship, as they fought side by side and developed a sense of shared sacrifice. The two nations also worked together during the post-war period to address issues such as war reparations and economic recovery.
By the late 1890s, Britain sought improved relations with the US, agreeing to the construction of the Panama Canal, which opened in 1914. This period also saw a resolution to the boundary dispute with Venezuela, demonstrating a willingness to engage in amicable diplomacy.
Overall, the period between 1865 and 1929 witnessed a transformation in US-British relations, from post-Civil War tensions to a growing alliance during and after World War I, setting the stage for the "special relationship" that would develop in the 20th century.
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US expansionism
In the Caribbean, the United States' attention was drawn to Cuba, where violent conflict and political instability threatened American economic interests in the region. The Cuban fight for independence from Spanish colonial rule sparked sympathy among Americans, and popular hostility towards autocratic Spanish rule grew. The sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbor in 1898 further heightened tensions, leading to the Spanish-American War. The war ended Spain's colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere and resulted in the United States gaining control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
In the Pacific, the United States annexed the independent state of Hawaii during the Spanish-American War. This annexation was driven by economic interests and the desire to establish influence in the region. American investors played a role in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani, whose government intended to end foreign influence in Hawaii. With the backing of American businessmen, influential Hawaiians, and the U.S. ambassador to Hawaii, a new government was established that requested annexation to the United States.
The expansionist policies of the United States during this period were influenced by individuals such as Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan. Mahan, as the head of the Naval War College, emphasized the importance of naval power and was admired by Roosevelt and other influential figures. Roosevelt himself played a direct role in the Spanish-American War, resigning as assistant secretary of the navy to lead the "Rough Riders" regiment in Cuba.
The Spanish-American War marked a turning point in US history, solidifying its position as a Pacific power and leaving it with control or influence over islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. This period of expansionism reflected the United States' growing desire to establish its economic and strategic influence on a global scale.
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US diplomacy and yellow journalism
US diplomacy in the post-Civil War era was marked by a growing interest in foreign affairs, driven by economic pressures and expansionist ambitions. This period also witnessed the emergence of "yellow journalism," a style of sensationalist newspaper reporting that played a significant role in shaping public opinion and US foreign relations, particularly in the lead-up to the Spanish-American War.
During the late 19th century, American exports experienced a boom, increasing from $234 million in 1865 to $1.3 billion on the eve of the Spanish-American War in 1898. This economic expansion fueled a heightened interest in international affairs among businesses, religious leaders, and Progressive reformers. The desire to spread democratic and Christian influences abroad accompanied this economic expansionism.
Yellow journalism, named after the popular comic strip character "The Yellow Kid", thrived in the competitive New York City newspaper market of the 1890s. It was characterized by sensationalism, large dramatic images, and a focus on topics such as crime, violence, disasters, and scandals. While yellow journalism did not create anti-Spanish sentiments out of thin air, it played a significant role in arousing public sentiment against Spain's occupation of Cuba and influencing public reaction to international events.
The rivalry between newspaper publishers Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst exemplified yellow journalism. Their coverage of world events, particularly the Cuban revolution against Spanish rule, employed sensationalist styles to capture a large readership. This contributed to creating public support for the Spanish-American War, which ultimately expanded America's global reach.
In conclusion, the interplay between US diplomacy and yellow journalism during this period demonstrates the complex dynamics between media, public opinion, and foreign relations. While yellow journalism did not single-handedly shape US diplomacy, it influenced how diplomatic issues were perceived and how the public reacted to international events, highlighting the power of the press in shaping the course of history.
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Frequently asked questions
The US had tense relations with Britain and its Canadian colonies. American diplomats vehemently protested against British shipyards building warships for the Confederacy, especially the CSS Alabama. Washington demanded compensation from Britain for the damages caused by these warships, known as the Alabama Claims. Despite the strained ties, the two nations' relations improved after the Civil War, with American exports to other countries skyrocketing and the US seeking to expand its influence abroad.
The Dawes Plan, chaired by American banker Charles G. Dawes, addressed the issue of World War I reparations. It aimed to resolve the dispute between France and Germany over reparation payments. The plan included a staggered schedule for Germany's reparation payments, a large loan to stabilise the German currency, and an end to the occupation of the Ruhr. This led to a brief economic recovery in the latter half of the 1920s. The Young Plan of 1929 further reduced the amount of reparations owed by Germany to $8 billion over 58 years.
In the late 1920s, the US was involved in various diplomatic endeavours. The Stimson Doctrine, declared by Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson in 1929, stated that the US would not recognise Japan's takeover of Manchuria. The US also participated in the Lausanne Conference, which cancelled 90% of reparations owed by Germany. Additionally, President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed the "Good Neighbor policy," indicating US opposition to armed intervention in inter-American affairs.
