Simone Lawson
Diplomacy and debate are fundamental aspects of history, with nations often colliding in ideological differences or battling over resources, requiring diplomatic solutions. The United States, for example, has expanded its borders through both war and diplomacy, such as the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. Since its formation, the US government has debated the role of the federal government in providing for the military, immigration issues, and the rights of citizens who disagree with its policies. Historical debates and diplomacy have also centred around women's rights, including equal treatment under the law, equal pay, and suffrage. The Old South Meeting House in Boston, built in 1729, became a site of mass protest meetings in the years leading up to the American Revolution, with townfolk gathering to argue against impressment into the British Navy and to commemorate the Boston Massacre, advocating for independence.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| The role of the government | Providing for the military, immigration issues, and the rights of citizens |
| The role of diplomacy following WWI | Maintaining peace |
| The role of women in the workforce | Types of jobs women should be employed to do, equal treatment under the law, and equal pay |
| Visual objects influencing debates | Political cartoons, historical documents, and artifacts |
| The limitations of diplomacy | The successes, failures, and consequences of diplomatic agreements |
| The role of the War Department | Oversight of veteran affairs, management of naval affairs, and handling of militia and army matters |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the US government
The US government has played a significant role in historical debates and diplomacy, both domestically and internationally.
One of the earliest examples was the debate surrounding the role of the federal government during the early years of the US as a newly-created republic. This included discussions on the government's involvement in providing for the military, immigration issues, and the rights of citizens who disagree with the government. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, supported a strong international commerce presence and the development of a capable navy to protect US merchant vessels. On the other hand, the Jeffersonians, represented by Thomas Jefferson, favoured expansion across the continent and had differing views on political events in Europe.
The US government has also been involved in debates and diplomacy regarding social welfare. After the Revolutionary War, there were discussions about what the government owed to those who served the nation and their families. This led to the establishment of pension systems for veterans, widows, and orphans, marking the creation of the US's first social welfare system.
In terms of international diplomacy, the US Department of State works towards protecting America and its interests through various means. This includes fighting international terrorism, promoting regional stability, and supporting democratization and economic development worldwide. The US maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and engages with international organisations to promote stability and economic prosperity.
Additionally, the US government has recognised the importance of mutual understanding with other countries to advance its national interests. It engages with international audiences on issues of foreign policy, society, and shared values. The US also works with other nations to address global challenges, such as environmental degradation and the use of AI, and to uphold international norms.
Overall, the US government has actively participated in debates and diplomacy throughout history, shaping policies and strategies that impact both its citizens and the international community.
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Diplomacy following WWI
The diplomatic history of World War I covers the non-military interactions and propaganda efforts of the major players during the war. The two sides had differing approaches to diplomacy. Germany and the Central Powers focused on military supremacy, with the German military leadership of Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and his deputy, General Erich Ludendorff, largely ignoring politicians and diplomats. On the other hand, the Allies took a more complex, multi-dimensional approach that included critical roles for diplomacy, finance, propaganda, and subversion.
Following the armistice, the Paris Peace Conference took place, with United States President Woodrow Wilson's peace program aiming for "open covenants of peace openly arrived at" as a major goal for diplomacy in the post-World War I period. Wilson's idealistic Fourteen Points, proclaimed in January 1918, emphasized the need to destroy militarism and advocated for national self-determination. However, critics argue that his efforts to remake the international system were overly idealistic and placed too much faith in free trade and democracy.
The League of Nations, formed after World War I, was dominated by European powers and faced challenges in dealing with international crises. The absence of the United States, whose Senate refused to ratify the peace treaties, further weakened the League. The failure of the Paris peacemakers and the ineffectiveness of interwar diplomacy contributed to the tragedy of World War II, as unresolved issues in the settlement of World War I led to another global conflict.
During World War I, there were also diplomatic responses to the Armenian genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman government and its German allies. Allied governments attempted diplomacy to stop the genocide but were ignored. The Ottoman officials denied the massacres, and their German allies helped cover up the atrocities.
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The Boston Massacre
On the day of the massacre, a mob of colonists surrounded Private White, a British sentry, hurling insults and projectiles. Captain Thomas Preston led a group of soldiers to rescue Private White, but they were soon encircled by a larger number of colonists outside the Custom House. The soldiers, losing control, fired into the crowd despite explicit orders not to do so. The five men killed were Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, James Caldwell, Crispus Attucks, and Patrick Carr. Attucks, an African-American sailor, was memorialized as a hero of the American Revolution, with his death also serving as an important symbol of African-American patriotism and military valor.
In the aftermath of the massacre, a propaganda battle ensued between Patriots and Loyalists, with pamphlets and publications offering differing narratives of the incident. The Boston Gazette, for instance, characterized the massacre as part of a scheme to "quell a Spirit of Liberty," while Loyalists sought to influence opinion in London. The event sparked debates about the role of British troops in the colonies and the erosion of colonial rights, contributing to the growing divide between Great Britain and its American colonies.
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Diplomacy and the Native Nations
For centuries, Native American delegates and activists have visited the White House to assert their autonomy and demand their rights. Native Americans have a long tradition of diplomacy, which has been used to regulate their external relationships with others. Before the arrival of Europeans, the Haudenosaunee Great Law of Peace and Confederacy promoted cooperation among Indigenous nations, including the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Seneca.
In the early days of the United States, Native Nations engaged in diplomacy with the federal government and with each other. Formal diplomatic negotiations included Native rituals to reestablish relationships and open communication at treaty conferences that took place in Native towns, neutral sites in Indian-American borderlands, and in state and federal capitals. Native American orators were known for their use of metaphorical language, command of an audience, and compelling voice and gestures.
During the American Revolution, Native Americans developed relationships with the United States, maintained or ceased relations with the British Empire, and negotiated their relationships with other Native Nations. Prior to the Revolution, many Native Nations had also balanced a delicate diplomacy between European empires, which has been called the 'Play-off System'. While Americans pushed for land cessions, boundaries, trade, criminal jurisdiction, roads, the sale of liquor, and alliances were also key negotiating points.
In the early 1800s, President Madison enlisted William Clark, the Superintendent of Indian Affairs at St. Louis, to gather a delegation of Native Americans to visit Washington, D.C., and discuss the conditions of the War of 1812 at the White House. This established a longstanding tradition of Native American diplomacy. However, executive actions have often failed to fully recognize Native American sovereignty and acknowledge past injustices. In modern times, Native Americans have had more success in achieving their goals through judicial proceedings.
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Women's Suffrage
One of the key figures in the women's suffrage movement in the United States was Anna Howard Shaw, a minister, physician, lecturer, and suffragist. Shaw's oratorical skills in the suffrage and temperance movements were renowned. She became convinced that obtaining the vote for women was necessary to address the issues she encountered in her ministry and medical practice. In 1913, the National Anti-Suffrage Association banned its members from engaging in any further debate with her, demonstrating the impact of her persuasive arguments.
Another prominent advocate for women's suffrage was Jane Addams, who, in her speeches and articles, challenged the expectations of subservient behaviour for women and argued that without the vote, women could never be equal members of society. In 1910, she wrote, "May we not fairly say that American women need this implement in order to preserve the home?". In 1913, Addams and Shaw, then president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, testified before the House of Representatives' Committee on Rules. They aimed to persuade the committee to establish a dedicated House Committee to draft a suffrage amendment.
The debate around women's suffrage was not just about voting rights but also about the social roles women should play. While Congress debated who had the authority to make that decision, the public discourse focused on the expected behaviour and position of women in society. Many religious leaders opposed suffrage, believing it was against God's will. Despite these objections, the Nineteenth Amendment, ratified on August 18, 1920, granted women the right to vote in the United States. However, it is important to note that in practice, many women, particularly Black women in the South, were unable to exercise this right until much later.
The achievement of women's suffrage had a significant impact on international politics, contributing to a democratic peace by reducing the likelihood of conflicts between democratic nations.
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