Simone Lawson
American imperialism emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as the United States sought to exert its military, political, and economic influence globally. While the country never established formal colonies like its Western European counterparts, it employed diplomatic strategies, including gunboat diplomacy, dollar diplomacy, and big stick policies, to assert dominance and expand its sphere of influence. This period witnessed interventions in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia, raising questions about the role of Western diplomacy in advancing American imperialism.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Women's role | Women played a significant role in missionary work and endorsed imperialist policies to spread democracy, Christianity, and Western progress. |
| US invasion of Haiti | The US invaded Haiti in 1915 and continued to rule until 1934 to bring about political stability through US control. |
| Neocolonialism | The US has been accused of leveraging its economic power and practicing neocolonialism, a modern form of hegemony, instead of military force. |
| Monroe Doctrine | President James Monroe's Monroe Doctrine was committed to resisting European colonialism but had aggressive implications for American policy with no limitations on US actions. |
| US intervention in foreign countries | Presidents like Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, and William Howard Taft have supported interventionism and attacked foreign countries. |
| Gunboat diplomacy | Roosevelt's policy of repeated interventions in "dysfunctional" Caribbean and Latin American countries by US Marines and naval forces, establishing US control and dictating policies friendly to American business. |
| Dollar diplomacy | Dollar diplomacy, implemented by Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, offered a less costly method of empire by providing loans to Latin American nations in exchange for control over their fiscal affairs. |
| US imperialism | The US established its brand of imperialism in the 1890s and 1900s, acquiring territories and intervening in neighboring countries to protect American interests. |
| Naval power | Roosevelt emphasized developing the US Navy and expanding its fleet, showcasing American power through initiatives like the Great White Fleet. |
| Big stick policy | Roosevelt's "big stick" policy asserted that the persuasive power of the US military could ensure US hegemony over strategically important regions. |
| Open Door Policy | The Open Door Policy, articulated by John Hay in 1899, called for equal access to Chinese markets for all Western powers to maintain free trade. |
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What You'll Learn
Gunboat diplomacy
A notable example of gunboat diplomacy is the incident involving Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. Perry sailed a fleet of four black warships into Japan's Tokyo Bay, prompting Japan, which lacked a formidable navy, to open its ports to trade with the West for the first time in centuries. Similarly, in 1905, Roosevelt dispatched Marines to occupy the Dominican Republic and established financial supervision over its government.
While gunboat diplomacy has evolved over time, it continues to play a significant role in international relations. Today, the United States maintains a global network of naval bases and frequently adjusts the disposition of its naval fleets to influence foreign governments. This projection of military power serves as a constant reminder of the country's military might and its ability to intervene in foreign affairs.
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Dollar diplomacy
The primary goal of dollar diplomacy was to create stability abroad, particularly in Latin America and Asia, and through this stability promote American commercial interests. This was achieved through extensive US interventions in the Caribbean and Central America, such as in Nicaragua, where the US supported the overthrow of José Santos Zelaya and established Adolfo Díaz in his place. In China, Knox secured the entry of an American banking conglomerate, led by J.P. Morgan, into a European-financed consortium constructing a railway from Huguang to Canton. These interventions were often justified as a means to protect the Panama Canal and to promote stability in the region.
Woodrow Wilson, who became president in 1913, immediately repudiated dollar diplomacy, marking a shift away from this approach. However, he continued to act vigorously to maintain US supremacy in Central America and the Caribbean, demonstrating the ongoing tension between idealistic humanitarian sentiments and the pursuit of American commercial and strategic interests.
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US intervention in Latin America
One of the earliest examples of US intervention in Latin America was the brief seizure of Nicaragua in 1855 by William Walker, a filibusterer and soldier. This intervention was motivated by Walker's desire to expand slavery into Central America and is considered a representative expression of Manifest Destiny. The US also annexed Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War, and its expansive foreign policy in the region continued into the early 20th century with the "Banana Wars". These interventions were aimed at promoting American business interests and included the occupation of the Dominican Republic in 1905, where Roosevelt established financial supervision over the country. This approach, sometimes referred to as "gunboat diplomacy", involved the use of naval forces and marines to protect American interests and dictate policies favourable to American businesses.
Throughout the 20th century, the US continued to intervene in Latin America, often to depose left-wing leaders and replace them with right-wing, military juntas, or authoritarian regimes. For example, the US supported the 1971 coup in Bolivia that overthrew President Juan José Torres and the 1976 Argentine coup d'état that removed President Isabel Perón, leading to the military dictatorship of General Jorge Rafael Videla. The US also invaded Panama in 1989, overthrowing Manuel Noriega's dictatorship. In Haiti, the US invaded in 1915, ruling through martial law and preventing the country from practising self-governance or democracy. More recently, the Trump administration attempted to remove President Nicolás Maduro from office during the Venezuelan presidential crisis, imposing sanctions that damaged Venezuela's economy.
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Women's advocacy for imperialism
Women have played a significant role in advocating for American imperialism, both historically and in contemporary times. During the era of American imperialism, women's organisations and prominent female figures actively endorsed and promoted the expansion of American influence overseas. They believed in the superiority of American ideals and values and saw imperialism as an opportunity to spread democracy, Christianity, and Western progress to other nations. This phenomenon, often referred to as "imperial feminism" or "imperialist feminism", has been critiqued for perpetuating stereotypes about non-Western women and justifying empire-building in the name of feminism.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, as European colonial powers expanded their rule over non-white and non-Western populations, they justified their actions by claiming that they were liberating women from the oppression of male counterparts. Cultural practices such as sati, child marriage, and the Islamic veil were pointed to as evidence of the "backwardness" of these cultures, and colonial rule was framed as a civilizing mission to rescue oppressed women. This discourse, known as "Orientalism", was used to justify control and continued rule over non-Western nations.
In more recent times, the lead-up to the US invasion of Afghanistan saw Western and US feminists publicize the plight of Afghan women under the Taliban regime. Laura Bush, the former first lady, played a notable role in pushing a moral justification for the invasion, arguing that it was necessary to emancipate Afghan women from oppression. While this rhetoric appeared beneficial on the surface, critics argue that it may have undermined America's goals in Afghanistan by allowing the Taliban to frame women's empowerment as a form of American control.
Additionally, some argue that Western feminism has created an image of non-Western women as being in a lower socioeconomic position than they actually are. This is sometimes referred to as "intersectional imperialism", where Western nations promote inclusive and progressive rhetoric at home while engaging in or supporting imperialistic policies abroad. For example, during the peace process in Afghanistan, Western feminists were notably silent despite repeated warnings from Afghan women about the impact of a deal with the Taliban on their rights. This contrast between their active role during the invasion and passivity during the peace process highlights the complexities of transnational feminist solidarity in the context of imperialism.
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Influence on global culture and education
American imperialism, which refers to the expansion of political, economic, cultural, media, and military influence beyond the boundaries of the United States, had a significant influence on global culture and education. This influence was felt in various parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, the Middle East, and Latin America, through the establishment of missions, schools, hospitals, and other institutions.
In the 1890s and early 1900s, the United States established its own brand of imperialism, acquiring territories and intervening in neighboring countries to protect its interests. While the United States never established formal colonies like its Western European counterparts, it exerted a large sphere of influence, particularly in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, through military intervention. This period also saw the emergence of the Roosevelt Corollary, a piece of legislation created by President Theodore Roosevelt, which asserted the American right to monitor and intervene in situations of unrest in the Western Hemisphere.
The expansion of American imperialism was facilitated by technological advancements, such as the telegraph, which increased the speed of communication and enabled instant communication between European cities and their distant colonies. This sense of technological dominance reinforced beliefs in racial and cultural superiority among Europeans and Americans.
American women played a significant role in advocating for and shaping American imperialism, particularly in the areas of missionary work and social reform. They viewed themselves as agents of cultural and religious transformation, aiming to "civilize" and "Christianize" indigenous populations. To this end, they established schools, churches, hospitals, and orphanages in imperial territories, intertwining religious and imperialistic motives. These initiatives reflected a belief in the superiority of Western values and a desire to assimilate native cultures into American norms.
The impact of American imperialism on global culture was complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, it led to the spread of Western values, education, and social reforms in imperial territories. It also contributed to the establishment of Western-style universities in the Middle East, such as Robert College in Istanbul, the American University of Beirut, and the American University of Cairo. On the other hand, American imperialism disrupted existing cultures and traditions, imposing Western cultural norms and creating or exacerbating ethnic divisions.
In conclusion, American imperialism had a significant influence on global culture and education, leading to both the spread of Western values and disruptions to existing cultures. While some celebrated the expansion of American influence as a benevolent mission, others critiqued it as a form of cultural imperialism. The complex legacy of American imperialism continues to shape global cultures and societies today.
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Frequently asked questions
American Imperialism refers to the period starting from the late 1800s to the early 1900s, during which the United States established its own brand of imperialism through territorial acquisitions and interventions in neighbouring countries to protect and expand its economic, military, and cultural influence.
Diplomacy played a significant role in American Imperialism. The Monroe Doctrine, presented by President James Monroe in 1823, committed to resisting European colonialism while giving the US free rein to act in the Western Hemisphere. This doctrine was later expanded by Theodore Roosevelt, who established the Roosevelt Corollary, asserting the US's right to intervene in situations of political unrest in the region. Additionally, Roosevelt's policy of "gunboat diplomacy" or "big stick diplomacy" involved using naval forces and marines to protect American interests and assert dominance in the Caribbean and Latin America.
Economic factors played a crucial role in American Imperialism. The US pursued economic influence through policies like the Open Door Policy, which sought to maintain free trade with China, and "dollar diplomacy," which provided loans to Latin American nations in exchange for control over their fiscal affairs.
Women played a significant role in both advocating for and protesting against American Imperialism. Those in favour of imperialism saw it as an opportunity to spread American values, culture, democracy, and Christianity to other nations, framing it as a benevolent mission. On the other hand, women who opposed imperialism challenged these notions and argued against US interventionism.
Some notable examples of American Imperialism include the Spanish-American War (1898), the establishment of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, the occupation of the Dominican Republic (1905), and the invasion of Haiti (1915-1934).
