Omar Bennett
Diplomacy is a tool used by governments worldwide to conduct foreign relations and manage international business and relationships. It is the primary means of peacefully adjusting differences between states and is considered the chief instrument of foreign policy. Diplomacy is the cultivation of friendship with foreign states and peoples, and it involves negotiation, advocacy, and the exchange of information. While diplomacy is often associated with international relations, it need not always be so. For instance, in the ancient world, diplomacy was practised between city-states, and today, diplomacy is also conducted within nations, such as when dealing with internal dissidents.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The art of conducting relations between sovereign states |
| History | Ancient peace treaties between Mesopotamian city-states, ancient Greek city-states, and the Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty |
| Modern History | Post-Renaissance European state system, now adopted worldwide |
| Functions | Negotiating and concluding agreements, treaties, and summits, as well as managing relations with foreign governments and international organisations |
| Importance | Essential tool for foreign relations, preventing the world from falling into chaos |
| Goals | Peaceful adjustment of differences between states, preventing hostility, and promoting neutrality |
| Strategies | Dollar diplomacy, gunboat diplomacy, advocacy, and public and cultural diplomacy |
| Challenges | Maintaining credibility, rapport, and adhering to international law |
| Unique Challenges for Small States | Limited resources, climate change, water security, and shifts in the global economy |
| Tools | International dialogue, negotiation, diplomatic immunity, and diplomatic pouches |
| Examples | The United States maintains diplomatic relations with approximately 180 countries |
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What You'll Learn
Diplomacy as a tool of foreign policy
Diplomacy is a critical tool of foreign policy, employed by states to achieve their goals and protect their interests. It is the primary means of peacefully resolving differences between nations, often through international dialogue and negotiation. The history of diplomacy dates back to ancient civilisations, with the practice evolving over time to encompass a range of strategies and techniques.
Diplomacy has traditionally involved the conduct of official bilateral relations between sovereign states. The term itself is derived from the ancient Greek word "diploma", referring to a folded document that conferred privileges such as permits to travel. Over time, the concept of diplomacy expanded beyond the mere exchange of documents to include the negotiation and conclusion of agreements, treaties, and peace accords.
In the modern era, diplomacy has become a multifaceted tool of foreign policy, influenced by advances in travel, trade, and technology. Nations maintain diplomatic relations with numerous countries and international organisations, recognising the importance of these interactions in addressing global challenges. Diplomacy is utilised to negotiate and resolve issues related to trade, nuclear agreements, environmental degradation, and regional stability, among others.
One notable aspect of diplomacy is defence diplomacy, which focuses on the peaceful use of armed forces and defence infrastructure to achieve foreign policy and security objectives. Defence diplomacy aims to build stable, long-term international relations in the field of defence, often involving the coordination of defence and military leadership to prevent conflicts and resolve crises.
Additionally, diplomacy plays a crucial role in promoting mutual understanding between nations. Through public diplomacy programs, nations can engage with international audiences on issues of foreign policy, society, and shared values, fostering an environment that aligns with their national interests. Diplomacy also facilitates the exchange of information and expertise, contributing to a more informed and cooperative global community.
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International arbitration
Diplomacy has traditionally been associated with international relations and the conduct of official bilateral relations between sovereign states. However, the term "diplomacy" has evolved to encompass a broader range of interactions beyond just the international level.
There are three main types of international arbitration: interstate arbitration, investor-state arbitration, and international commercial arbitration. In interstate arbitration, nations, represented by their governments, use arbitration to settle significant international conflicts and maintain peaceful relations. Investor-state arbitration, a more recent development, addresses disputes between nations and private foreign investors or companies, arising from bilateral or multilateral investment treaties. International commercial arbitration, governed by the UNCITRAL Model Law, is particularly useful when the parties involved wish to preserve their commercial relationship despite their dispute, often concerning contracts, intellectual property, or construction.
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Diplomatic immunity
Diplomacy is the main vehicle for foreign policy, which is set by political leaders, although diplomats (alongside military and intelligence officers) may advise them. It is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft. It is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states.
The modern concept of diplomatic immunity largely conforms to the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which has been ratified by most sovereign states. Diplomats may be expelled, but not prosecuted, and can be waived for prosecution by their home country, typically if the official was involved in a serious crime unrelated to their diplomatic role.
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Small state diplomacy
Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. Small states are particularly affected by developments beyond their borders, such as climate change, water security, and shifts in the global economy. They have strong incentives to support international cooperation, but with limited resources, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges.
Small states can have a palpable influence on the world stage. For example, Switzerland and the Nordic countries have shown how focused and well-informed diplomacy can produce remarkable results, especially when vital economic or security interests are involved. One notable example is the 1951 Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case, which was one of the first major decisions of the UN's International Court of Justice. Although this could be considered a victory for a small state on the world stage, it was Iceland, a state with only seven years of independence, that made the most of the decision. Iceland's government promptly extended its fisheries limits from 4 to 12 miles and, over the next quarter of a century, led the way in extending protected fisheries limits to the now universally accepted 200 meters.
Small states have also shown their diplomatic prowess by joining regional or global bodies and manoeuvring to promote their interests within frameworks established by larger powers. For instance, the Venetian Republic and the Vatican in the 17th century, and the designation of nuncio as co-equal to ambassador in the 1962 Vienna Diplomatic Convention, recognizing the centuries-long role played by the Holy See's diplomats.
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The role of spies and intelligence in diplomacy
Diplomacy is the primary tool for the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It is the art of conducting official relations between sovereign states and has long been associated with international relations.
Spies and intelligence officers play an important and increasing role in diplomacy. Intelligence has long been a valuable tool for diplomats, where persuasion and influence are central to delivering policy outcomes. Intelligence activities, including analysis and covert operations, shape statecraft and support the state's policy goals. Intelligence can be used to promote foreign policy goals and as an instrument of influence in international relations. For example, intelligence was critical in enabling the US and its allies to respond to Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
The information gathered by spies is essential in diplomacy, from trade agreements to border disputes and arms-control treaties. Intelligence can be used to monitor compliance with treaties and gather information about other nations' intentions and capabilities. This information can then be used to inform and influence the strategic decision-making process of leaders and nations.
In the modern era, intelligence is even more critical given the fast-changing information landscape and the rise of open-source intelligence. Diplomats must be able to integrate unique, credible, non-public information into diplomatic engagements and use it to shape perceptions, align views, and shift policies.
The relationship between diplomacy, defense, and intelligence is complex and reciprocal, with the role and influence of each actor varying across issue areas and time. Intelligence plays a key role in formulating and implementing states' external actions, and the political importance of discussing its role in foreign policy is underscored by the moral and practical dilemmas it presents.
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Frequently asked questions
Diplomacy is the main tool of foreign policy, which is set by political leaders. It is the cultivation and exploitation of friendship with foreign states and peoples. It is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states.
No, diplomacy does not have to be international. Historically, diplomacy meant the conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. However, diplomacy can also refer to unofficial diplomacy by nongovernmental elements, and the work of international civil servants.
International diplomacy can take many forms, including peace treaties, summit meetings, international conferences, and parliamentary diplomacy. For example, the United States maintains diplomatic relations with approximately 180 countries, and uses diplomacy to prevent local conflicts from becoming wider wars that may harm its interests.
