Science Diplomacy: Effective Or Elusive?

Science diplomacy is a global phenomenon that involves the collaboration of scientists, diplomats, and organisations to address international issues. It can take many forms, including formal and informal exchanges, research collaborations, and academic or engineering initiatives. The concept has gained prominence in recent years, with various EU member states developing science diplomacy strategies and creating science-related positions within their foreign affairs ministries. Notable examples of successful science diplomacy include the establishment of the Centre for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the distribution of an inexpensive hepatitis B vaccine to people in Pakistan. The effectiveness of science diplomacy is evident in addressing global health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, and tackling geopolitical challenges through scientific collaboration. However, the evolving nature of diplomacy and the rapid pace of scientific progress have prompted questions about the role and adaptation of science diplomacy in the modern world.

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Science diplomacy's three strands

Science diplomacy is a global phenomenon that involves the cross-border collaboration of scientists, scientific organisations, states, international organisations, and non-state actors. While there is no agreed-upon definition of science diplomacy, it is generally understood to include three strands: diplomacy for science, science for diplomacy, and science in diplomacy.

Diplomacy for Science

The first strand, diplomacy for science, involves using diplomatic action to facilitate international scientific collaboration. This may take the form of negotiating R&D agreements and exchange programs, enabling the establishment of international research infrastructures, and creating international organisations. For example, in 1926, Sir Frank Heath, the Secretary of the UK Department of Scientific Industry, advised the Australian government to establish the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, which supported industry and facilitated international scientific liaison. Another example is the Centre for Nuclear Research (CERN), which counts 23 European nations as its member states and has helped establish other research centres, such as the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME).

Science for Diplomacy

The second strand, science for diplomacy, involves using science as a soft power tool to advance diplomatic objectives and build bridges between nations. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) collaborates with international organisations, researchers, public health officials, governments, and clinicians to develop and implement effective strategies for infection control and treatment. Through medical diplomacy, the global community has gained access to essential vaccines, and international cooperation has been critical in addressing outbreaks of diseases such as SARS, Ebola, Zika, and COVID-19.

Science in Diplomacy

The third strand, science in diplomacy, involves the direct support of diplomatic processes through science by providing scientific advice and evidence to inform decision-making in foreign and security policies. For example, the Foreign Ministries Science & Technology Advice Network (FMSTAN) serves as a global platform for science advisors working in diplomatic services. Additionally, the Science Policy in Diplomacy and External Relations (SPIDER) network gathers the science diplomacy community worldwide, promoting collaboration on science diplomacy matters.

Science diplomacy successes

Science diplomacy has been retrospectively identified in historical events, and the term itself has only been in use since the beginning of the 21st century. It came to prominence during the Obama administration, and has been described as a "smart power" or "soft power".

The World Health Organization (WHO)

The WHO works with international organizations, researchers, public health officials, governments, and clinicians to develop and implement strategies for infection control and treatment. Through medical diplomacy, the global community has gained access to essential vaccines. International cooperation has been critical in addressing outbreaks of diseases such as SARS, Ebola, and Zika, and has played a vital role in managing the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Centre for Nuclear Research (CERN)

CERN, established in 1954, is a prominent example of a scientific institution with a science diplomacy motivation. It has 23 European nations as its member states and helped establish the SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East) research centre in Jordan, which has eight member states from the Middle East.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol, ratified in the late 1980s, is another success story of science diplomacy. It is an international agreement designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of substances that deplete it.

Nuclear Arms Control Treaties

The nuclear arms control treaties of the 1990s are also a result of successful science diplomacy. These treaties aim to control and reduce the threat posed by nuclear weapons, and have had a significant impact on global security.

International Collaboration in Mt. Paektu Volcano Imaging

Scientists from the UK and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea collaborated to successfully image the crust beneath the iconic Mt. Paektu volcano, demonstrating how science diplomacy can facilitate international scientific cooperation and lead to valuable scientific discoveries.

AAAS-TWAS Course on Science Diplomacy

The annual AAAS-TWAS Course on Science Diplomacy, held in Trieste, Italy, brings together scientists and policymakers from developing and developed countries. The course encourages long-term collaboration between participants and provides a platform for knowledge exchange and capacity-building in the field of science diplomacy.

Pugwash Conferences

The Pugwash Conferences, inspired by a manifesto calling on scientists from all political backgrounds to unite and address the threat of thermonuclear weapons, began in 1957. These conferences attracted the attention of high-ranking government officials and served as a platform for scientific exchange and discussion on critical global issues.

These examples illustrate the potential for science diplomacy to address global challenges, foster international cooperation, and contribute to positive outcomes in various fields, including health, the environment, and international relations.

Science diplomacy in a disruptive era

Science diplomacy is a global phenomenon that involves the cross-border collaboration of scientists, diplomats, and organisations. It is a set of activities where scientific, diplomatic, and other interests overlap, and states, international organisations, and non-state actors represent themselves and their interests.

In an era of disruption, science diplomacy is more important than ever. Scientific progress is outpacing government regulation, power is more dispersed, and the traditional idea of a diplomat is evolving. The balance between openness and security is more precarious, and conflict around the world has called the role of science diplomacy into question.

To address these challenges, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the Royal Society have published a new report, "Science Diplomacy in an Era of Disruption". This report seeks to update the framework for science diplomacy to meet new challenges and adapt to those that lie ahead. It is the result of over a year of evidence gathering, including high-level dialogues and international scientific meetings. The report will inform the next steps to be taken at the EU level.

The EU has also developed a European Framework for Science Diplomacy, which includes four work strands:

• How to use science diplomacy strategically to tackle geopolitical challenges in a fragmented, multipolar world.
• How to make European diplomacy more strategic, effective, and resilient through scientific evidence and foresight.
• How to strengthen science diplomacy in EU and Member State diplomatic missions and foster the EU’s global science diplomacy outreach.
• How to build capacity for European science diplomacy.

Science diplomacy can be a powerful tool for addressing common problems and building bridges between nations. It can facilitate international scientific collaboration, advance diplomatic objectives, and directly support diplomatic processes through scientific advice and evidence.

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Science diplomacy courses

Science diplomacy is a global phenomenon that involves the cross-border collaboration of scientists, scientific organisations, states, and international organisations. It is a set of activities where scientific, diplomatic, and other interests overlap.

Several courses are available for those interested in learning more about science diplomacy. Here are some notable examples:

• The S4D4C European Science Diplomacy Online Course: This course offers an overview of the international science and policy systems, as well as the complex interface between science, diplomacy, and international policy. It is a self-paced, free online course that can be completed in approximately 15 hours. The course covers topics such as the state of the art in science diplomacy, the types of professionals involved, and the stakeholders and networks in science diplomacy at various levels.
• The AAAS-TWAS Course on Science Diplomacy: This annual course, organised by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), is held in Trieste, Italy. It brings together scientists and policymakers from developing and developed countries, encouraging them to lay the foundation for long-term collaboration. The course includes presentations by experts, workshops, and role-playing simulations that help scientists understand the nature of diplomacy.
• The Rockefeller University's Science Diplomacy Course: This in-person course (with remote access available) explores the basic concepts and roles of science diplomacy, international practices relating to scientific materials, and the impact of recent policy changes on international science cooperation. It also covers topics such as the use of science as a form of power in international competition and the ethical, political, and economic implications of scientific work.
• The Science Diplomacy Education Network (SciDipEd): This platform, launched by AAAS, offers a one-hour introductory course on science diplomacy. It provides a framework for understanding the concept, traces its evolution in modern history, and includes case studies and interviews with top practitioners.
• TWAS Regional Courses: TWAS has co-organised various regional courses and workshops on science diplomacy, including in Namibia for southern African countries, Pretoria for Sub-Saharan African participants, Alexandria for Arab scientists, and Malaysia for the Asia-Pacific region. These courses aim to introduce science diplomacy and explore contemporary international policy issues relating to science, technology, the environment, and health.

Science diplomacy strategies

Diplomacy for Science

This involves using diplomatic channels to facilitate international scientific collaboration. This can include negotiating research and development (R&D) agreements, exchange programs, and the establishment of international research infrastructures. For instance, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) is a prominent example of an institution established through diplomatic efforts to facilitate scientific collaboration among European nations.

Science for Diplomacy

Here, science is leveraged as a soft power tool to advance diplomatic objectives and build bridges between nations. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) collaborates with international organizations, researchers, public health officials, governments, and clinicians to develop and implement effective strategies for infection control and treatment, gaining access to essential vaccines through medical diplomacy.

Science in Diplomacy

This approach involves providing direct scientific support to diplomatic processes by offering scientific advice and evidence to inform decision-making in foreign and security policies. An example of this is the work of Sir Frank Heath, who advised the Australian government in 1926, leading to the establishment of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research to support industry and facilitate international scientific liaison.

Track II Science Diplomacy

This form of science diplomacy is informal and transnational, occurring without an official national negotiating mandate. It involves exchanges between non-governmental actors, such as public pressure groups or individuals, who can influence governmental decisions. For instance, the work of editor Norman Cousins helped move the 1963 Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty forward.

Science Diplomacy Workshops and Courses

Organizations like TWAS offer science diplomacy workshops and courses that bring together scientists and policymakers from developing and developed countries. These programs aim to foster collaboration and provide training in science diplomacy, addressing topics such as energy and biosecurity.

Science Diplomacy Networks

Global networks such as the Foreign Ministries Science & Technology Advice Network (FMSTAN) and the Science Policy in Diplomacy and External Relations (SPIDER) network have been established to connect science advisors working in diplomatic services and foster collaboration within the science diplomacy community worldwide.

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