Malcolm Rivera
The Ottoman Empire's first experience with constitutional monarchy began in 1876, when Sultan Abdülaziz was deposed and replaced by his nephew, Murad V, who was also quickly dethroned for not supporting constitutional monarchy. The new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, ascended to the throne and introduced a constitution, starting the Empire's first short experience with democracy. This period, known as the First Constitutional Era, lasted from 1876 to 1878, when the sultan suspended parliament and the constitution following the Russian invasion. The second attempt at constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire occurred in 1908, during the Young Turk Revolution, when the Young Turks forced Abdulhamid II to restore the 1876 constitution and the General Assembly. This second constitutional period lasted until after World War I when the Ottoman Empire was dissolved.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First constitutional monarchy | 1876 |
| Second constitutional monarchy | 1908 |
| First constitutional monarchy duration | 1876-1878 |
| Second constitutional monarchy duration | 1908-1922 |
| First constitutional era | 1876-1878 |
| Second constitutional era | 1908-1920 |
| Constitutional monarchy abolished | 1922 |
| Constitutional monarchy abolished by | Mustafa Kemal Atatürk |
| Constitutional monarchy abolished due to | Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire |
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What You'll Learn
The first constitutional monarchy
The Ottoman Empire's first experience with constitutional monarchy dates back to 1876. This period, known as the First Constitutional Era, lasted from 1876 to 1878 and was the Empire's first short experience with democracy.
The move towards constitutional monarchy was influenced by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, which popularised ideas such as nationalism and nation-states. The Ottoman Empire had never been an absolute monarchy, as the ruler was constrained by religion and traditions. However, the spread of the ideas of liberty and freedom from the French Revolution inspired an intellectual group that admired France as the cradle of liberty. This group found support among the military and civil bureaucracy, and their rebellion in 1876 led to the deposition of Sultan Abdulaziz and the enthronement of his nephew, Murad V. However, Murad V did not favour a constitutional monarchy, and he was dethroned. Abdulhamid II then ascended to the throne and pledged to uphold the constitution, thus starting the First Constitutional Era.
The constitution was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, and was influenced by the Armenian National Constitution, which had been drafted by Western-educated Armenians in 1863. The Ottoman Constitution of 1876 was printed in Ottoman Turkish with a Perso-Arabic script and featured convoluted sentences and honorifics typical of Ottoman chancery style. It established a parliament consisting of a Senate (upper house) and a Chamber of Deputies (lower house), with the latter being popularly elected.
However, the First Constitutional Era was short-lived. In 1877-1878, the Ottoman Empire was invaded by Russia, and Sultan Abdulhamid II used his constitutional power to suspend parliament and the constitution, instead ruling as an autocrat. This period of autocratic rule lasted until 1908, when the Young Turk Revolution forced Abdulhamid II to restore the 1876 constitution and reconvene parliament, marking the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.
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The Young Turks
The Young Turk Revolution began with a small insurrection of Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) supporters in Macedonia and spread quickly. On July 23, 1908, a parliamentary monarchy was re-established in the Ottoman Empire following the first attempt in 1876. This date is one of the most important in the recent history of the Ottoman Empire. The Young Turks' movement was organised similarly to the Freemasons, and it rapidly gained popularity among the military and civil bureaucracy. The officers of the Third Army in Thessaloniki rebelled in 1908 and shot the military inspector, Şemsi Pasha. The sultan was forced to call a meeting of parliament, and the people took to the streets, shouting "liberty, equality and fraternity", echoing the slogans of the French Revolution.
The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire began in 1876 when Sultan Abdülaziz was deposed and replaced by his nephew, Murad V, who did not favour constitutional monarchy and was also swiftly dethroned. Abdulhamid II then ascended to the throne and introduced a constitution, starting the empire's first short experience with democracy. However, after the Russian invasion of 1877-78, Abdulhamid suspended parliament and the constitution, ruling as an autocrat and emphasising the empire's Islamic character. The Second Constitutional Era began in 1908 with the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the General Assembly, and it lasted until the dissolution of the assembly in 1920.
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The French Revolution's influence
The Ottoman Empire's first experience with constitutional monarchy dates back to 1876. The ideas of liberty and freedom of the French Revolution spread to the Ottoman lands, and an intellectual group that did not want to be restricted by traditions emerged. This group admired France, as its members believed that this country was the cradle of liberty.
The French Revolution's impact on the Ottoman Empire extended beyond cultural practices. The popularization of ideas such as nationalism and nation-states, which resulted from the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, made it increasingly difficult for multi-cultural countries and empires to appear legitimate to minority ethnic groups. This wave of nationalism reached the Ottoman Empire, and its Christian subjects began to demand full independence, turning the Empire's previously multicultural society into a cycle of violence and suspicion between neighbors.
The influence of the French Revolution on the Ottoman Empire's intellectual and cultural spheres, as well as its political and social dynamics, demonstrates the far-reaching impact of this pivotal event in world history.
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The war with Russia
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, which included Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. The war was a result of several factors, including Russia's goals of recovering territorial losses from the Crimean War of 1853-1856, re-establishing its presence in the Black Sea, and supporting the political movement to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. The war was also influenced by the power struggle between the two empires, with the Ottoman Empire attempting to maintain its dominance in the region.
During this period, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, facing financial difficulties and civil disorder due to accommodating Muslim refugees expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus. The war began with an ultimatum from Russia, demanding that the Ottoman Empire cease hostilities and sign a truce with Serbia. Despite accepting the ultimatum, the Ottoman Empire was pushed back to the gates of Constantinople, leading to the intervention of Western European powers. The Russian-led coalition prevailed, resulting in significant territorial losses for the Ottomans, including provinces in the Caucasus and the annexation of the Budjak region.
The war had a significant impact on the Ottoman Empire, leading to the suspension of parliament and the constitution by Sultan Abdulhamid II in 1878. The Sultan chose to rule as an autocrat, emphasizing the empire's Islamic character and his position as Caliph. This marked the end of the First Constitutional Era, which had begun in 1876 with the introduction of a constitution and parliamentary rule. The war's aftermath also saw the emergence of Bulgaria as an autonomous state with Russian support, further reducing Ottoman influence in the region.
The defeat in the Russo-Turkish War contributed to the Ottoman Empire's ongoing decline and set in motion a series of events that would shape the region's future. The loss of territories and the subsequent intervention of Western European powers highlighted the Empire's weakening position. Additionally, the war's trauma and the subsequent suspension of parliament and the constitution created political and social unrest within the Empire, leading to further instability and setting the stage for future conflicts.
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The Second Constitutional Era
The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire began in 1876 when Sultan Abdulhamid II transformed the empire into a constitutional monarchy with the introduction of a constitution. However, in the aftermath of the Russian invasion in 1877–1878 and criticism of his handling of the war, Abdulhamid suspended parliament and the constitution, instead ruling as an autocrat.
The Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists, opposed the rule of Abdulhamid II and called for the restoration of constitutional monarchy. In 1908, a faction within the Young Turks called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) forced Abdulhamid to restore the liberal constitution of 1876 and the General Assembly in the Young Turk Revolution. The Second Constitutional Era featured unprecedented political pluralism within the empire and openly contested elections.
The new constitution secured the freedom of the press, and the guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. However, there was still ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire, and the rise of nationalism and nation-states made it increasingly difficult for multi-cultural countries and empires to appear legitimate to minority ethnic groups. The Ottoman Empire was no exception, and its Christian subjects began to demand full independence, creating cycles of violence and suspicion between neighbours.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, the Ottoman Empire became a constitutional monarchy in 1876, following a series of reforms during the Tanzimat era. This period, known as the First Constitutional Era, lasted until 1878 when, in the aftermath of the Russian invasion, Sultan Abdulhamid II suspended parliament and the constitution.
After the suspension of the First Constitutional Era, Sultan Abdulhamid II ruled as an autocrat, emphasising the empire's Islamic character and his position as Caliph.
Yes, the Young Turks Revolution of 1908 forced Abdulhamid II to restore the liberal constitution of 1876. This marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era, which lasted until 1920 when the General Assembly was dissolved.
Following the Second Constitutional Era, the Ottoman Empire was dissolved after World War I. The Grand National Assembly ratified the Turkish Constitution of 1921, which remained in effect until 1924 when it was replaced by a new constitution.
