Malcolm Rivera
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was created with the explicit intention of disenfranchising Black Mississippians and restoring white supremacy in the state. The constitution introduced a poll tax and arbitrary literacy tests as voting requirements, which were designed to prevent African Americans from voting. This was achieved by targeting the economic disadvantages of Black Mississippians and subjectively enforcing the literacy tests. The constitution also included a disenfranchisement clause that struck all voters from the rolls and required them to re-register under the new requirements. These measures were implemented by a constitutional convention composed almost entirely of white Democrats, and they effectively reversed the democratic progress that had been made following the Civil War, during which African Americans were the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Race | African Americans and some poor whites |
| Political affiliation | Republicans |
| Social class | Poor people |
| Education | Illiterate people |
| Criminal record | People convicted of bribery, burglary, theft, arson, obtaining money or goods under false pretenses, perjury, forgery, embezzlement or bigamy |
| Tax status | People who had not paid poll taxes |
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What You'll Learn
- The 1890 Mississippi Constitution's aim to bar Black voters
- The use of literacy tests and poll taxes to disenfranchise
- The impact on newly-franchised African Americans and poor whites
- The role of the lone Black member of the constitutional convention, Isaiah Montgomery
- The legacy of voter suppression and ongoing fight for voting rights
The 1890 Mississippi Constitution's aim to bar Black voters
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to bar Black voters and restore white supremacy in the state. The constitution introduced a series of measures that aimed to disenfranchise Black Mississippians and prevent them from participating in civil society.
One of the key methods used to disenfranchise Black voters was the introduction of literacy tests and "understanding tests". These tests were arbitrarily applied and used to prevent African Americans from casting ballots. The president of the 1890 constitutional convention, Sol S. Calhoon, a judge from Hinds County, stated that the convention was specifically called to disenfranchise the state's African American voters. He further remarked, "Let's tell the truth if it bursts the bottom of the Universe... We came here to exclude the Negro. Nothing short of this will answer."
In addition to the literacy tests, the 1890 Mississippi Constitution also introduced a poll tax, which required voters to pay a tax before they were allowed to vote. This measure disproportionately affected African Americans, who often lacked the wealth to pay such taxes. The combination of literacy tests and poll taxes effectively prevented most African Americans from voting and was a significant barrier to their participation in democracy.
The 1890 Mississippi Constitution also included a disenfranchisement clause, which struck all voters from the rolls and required them to register again under new conditions. This clause, found in Section 241, specified that only those who had never been convicted of certain crimes, such as bribery, burglary, theft, arson, and perjury, would be allowed to vote. This clause was later expanded to cover 102 crimes. The choice of crimes for disenfranchisement was criticised as racist, as it excluded violent crimes often associated with white supremacist terrorism, such as murder, rape, and assault.
The impact of these measures was significant. Within a decade of the constitution's adoption, the number of Black registered voters in Mississippi fell drastically, from more than 130,000 to less than 1,300. The constitution's racist intent was recognised by many at the time, including future governor and U.S. Senator James K. Vardaman, who declared, "Mississippi's constitutional convention of 1890 was held for no other purpose than to eliminate the [N-word] from politics."
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 set a precedent for other Southern states, which later adopted similar measures to exclude Black voters and entrench white political supremacy. The legacy of this constitution and its impact on Black voting rights continued well into the 20th century, with efforts to overturn disenfranchisement laws facing challenges and resistance.
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The use of literacy tests and poll taxes to disenfranchise
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 disenfranchised African Americans and some poor whites. The constitution included a poll tax and arbitrary literacy tests for voting, which were designed to prevent African Americans from voting.
The Use of Literacy Tests to Disenfranchise
Literacy tests were employed as part of the voter registration process in the late 19th century. The first formal voter literacy tests were introduced in 1890, the same year as the Mississippi Constitution. While on paper, the literacy tests were to be applied equally to all persons, in reality, they were subjectively enforced to prevent African Americans from voting. Whites were generally exempted from the literacy tests if they met alternate requirements that excluded black people, such as a "grandfather clause" or a finding of "good moral character".
The Use of Poll Taxes to Disenfranchise
Poll taxes were used in the United States until they were outlawed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965. They were a major source of government funding and became a tool of disenfranchisement in the South during Jim Crow, following the end of Reconstruction. Poll taxes were used to disenfranchise impoverished and minority voters, especially after Reconstruction. After the right to vote was extended to all races by the Fifteenth Amendment, many Southern states enacted poll taxes as a means of excluding African-American voters, most of whom were poor and unable to pay.
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The impact on newly-franchised African Americans and poor whites
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 had a profound impact on the state's African Americans and poor whites, who were newly enfranchised following the Civil War. The constitution was specifically designed to disenfranchise African Americans and restrict their rights, through a range of measures including literacy tests, poll taxes, and residency requirements. This effectively excluded them from participating in the state's political system and civil society, reversing the democratic progress that had been made since the Civil War, when African Americans were the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi.
The constitution's impact on African Americans was devastating, as they were barred from voting and subjected to further discrimination and violence. Within a decade, the number of Black registered voters in Mississippi plummeted from more than 130,000 to less than 1,300. This was achieved through a combination of legal provisions and terrorist violence, with white Democrats resorting to ballot-stuffing, perjury, fraud, and intimidation to prevent African Americans from voting.
The lone Black member of the 1890 constitutional convention, Isaiah Montgomery, voted for the constitution in the hope that disenfranchisement might bring an end to the violence against Black Mississippians. However, this was not the case, and the constitution instead entrenched white supremacy and further marginalised the Black community.
The constitution also impacted poor whites, who were similarly disenfranchised by the literacy tests and poll taxes. While the number of poor whites affected was smaller, it nonetheless represented a setback for democratic progress in the state.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 set a precedent for other Southern states, which soon followed suit with similar measures to disenfranchise African Americans and poor whites, solidifying a system of racial segregation and discrimination that would persist for decades. It was not until the passage of the federal Voting Rights Act in 1965 that African Americans in Mississippi and other Southern states regained the power to vote and began to chip away at the legacy of the 1890 constitution.
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The role of the lone Black member of the constitutional convention, Isaiah Montgomery
Isaiah Thornton Montgomery, born on May 21, 1847, in Davis Island, Mississippi, was the only Black member of the Mississippi Constitutional Convention of 1890. He was a Republican delegate from Bolivar County. Montgomery's attendance at the convention was significant, as he played a role in the disenfranchisement of African American voters in Mississippi.
Montgomery was a well-known figure in Bolivar County Republican circles and was active in local politics. He served as the mayor of Mound Bayou, an all-black community that he founded. Despite his political involvement, Montgomery understood the power dynamics of his time and place. He was pragmatic and advised Black Mississippians to stay away from white politics. This stance may have been influenced by his background as a former slave of Confederate president Jefferson Davis's brother.
Montgomery's controversial role in the convention has been a subject of debate among scholars. He supported measures that effectively disenfranchised almost every African American voter in Mississippi, as well as over 111,000 landless white voters. He accepted the "understanding clause," which required voters to interpret a passage from the state constitution, despite his own experience as a voter since the early days of Reconstruction. Montgomery argued that while the clause appeared unfriendly towards Blacks, it was in the public interest to prevent illiterates from voting.
Montgomery's decision to support these measures may have been influenced by his position as a businessman, where he faced pressure to maintain relationships with the state's predominantly white political and economic leaders. By offering to speak on behalf of measures that were likely to pass anyway, he placated fellow planters while avoiding direct controversy with the state's power brokers.
Montgomery's actions at the convention have been interpreted as a form of accommodation and pragmatism in the pursuit of racial harmony. He has been described as a "race statesman" and compared to Booker T. Washington, who advocated for independence based on self-reliance and economic autonomy.
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The legacy of voter suppression and ongoing fight for voting rights
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to disenfranchise African Americans and prevent them from exercising their right to vote. The new constitution included a poll tax and arbitrary literacy tests for voting, which served as mechanisms to disenfranchise African Americans and some poor whites. This marked an end to the period of democratic progress following the Civil War, during which African Americans constituted the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi. The constitution was a victory for voter suppression and set a precedent for other Southern states to follow suit.
The legacy of voter suppression in the United States is a long and ongoing battle, with racial discrimination at its core. Voter suppression has taken various legal and illegal forms, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and more recently, voter ID laws and restrictions on early voting. These measures have been used to target racial minorities, particularly African Americans, as well as the elderly, students, and people with disabilities. The impact of voter suppression has been significant, with Black turnout in some Southern states being equal to or greater than White turnout.
The fight against voter suppression has been led by organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Brennan Center for Justice. These organizations have engaged in advocacy, litigation, and research to block or weaken voter suppression schemes and protect the voting rights of all citizens. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were significant milestones in this fight, improving voting access and protecting the rights of voters and election workers.
However, voter suppression remains a concern in the 21st century. The 2013 US Supreme Court ruling in Shelby County v. Holder weakened the Voting Rights Act, and since then, numerous states have introduced bills that restrict voting access. As of March 24, 2021, more than 361 such bills have been introduced in 47 states. The ongoing fight for voting rights involves advocating for the passage of laws such as the John R. Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act, the Freedom to Vote Act, and the Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act. These laws aim to protect voting rights, end partisan gerrymandering, and prevent voter intimidation and the spread of false information.
The legacy of voter suppression in the United States, particularly as exemplified by the Mississippi Constitution of 1890, underscores the persistent struggle for racial equality and voting rights. The ongoing fight involves legal battles, legislative advocacy, and grassroots activism to ensure that all eligible citizens, regardless of race, age, or ability, can fully exercise their constitutional right to vote.
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Frequently asked questions
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 disenfranchised African Americans.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 aimed to bar Black voters and restore white supremacy.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 used literacy tests, "understanding tests", and poll taxes to disenfranchise African Americans.
