Isabella Carter
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was adopted on November 1, 1890, with the primary purpose of disenfranchising African Americans and some poor whites. The constitution introduced poll taxes and literacy tests for voting, which were designed to prevent African Americans from casting ballots. This marked a transition from the use of violence and terrorism to legal constitutional means of enforcing white supremacy, setting a precedent for other Southern states to follow. The constitution was a setback for democratic progress and contributed to Mississippi's social and economic challenges in the 20th century.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Purpose | To disenfranchise African Americans and some poor whites |
| Means | Literacy tests, poll taxes, lengthy residence requirements |
| Result | Successful disenfranchisement of African Americans; also disenfranchised some whites; hindered the state socially and economically |
| Context | Post-Civil War, during Reconstruction; Mississippi was majority African American and eligible to vote |
| Motivations | White Mississippians' bigotry, prejudice, and belief in white supremacy; desire to protect party interests |
| Methods | Intimidation, threats of violence, manipulation, fraud at the ballot box |
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What You'll Learn
Literacy tests and poll taxes
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was adopted on November 1, 1890, and included a poll tax and literacy test for voting. These measures were designed to disenfranchise African Americans and some poor whites. The president of the 1890 constitutional convention, Sol S. Calhoon, a judge from Hinds County, stated that the convention was called specifically to "exclude the Negro".
The literacy test required potential voters to be able to read any section of the Mississippi Constitution, understand any section when read to them, or give a reasonable interpretation of any section. While the wording of the literacy test ostensibly implied that it was to be applied equally to all persons, in practice, it was subjectively enforced to prevent African Americans from voting.
Poll taxes were also used as a barrier to voting, particularly for those with limited financial means. By the mid-19th century, most states did not limit voting based on property ownership or poll taxes. However, after the ratification of the 15th Amendment, many states re-established poll taxes to limit Black voter registration and turnout. In 1877, Georgia implemented a cumulative poll tax, requiring citizens to pay back taxes before being allowed to vote, which resulted in a 50% decrease in Black voter turnout.
The combination of poll taxes, literacy tests, white primaries, intimidation, violence, and disqualification of people with felony convictions effectively reduced Black voter participation. These measures were part of a broader effort to suppress the African American vote during the Jim Crow era, which set back the democratic progress that had been made following the Civil War.
It wasn't until the 1960s that laws were passed to address racist voting restrictions in states like Mississippi. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were significant pieces of legislation that outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and affirmed the right of all U.S. residents to vote in state and federal elections.
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White Democrats' manipulation of the black vote
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was adopted on November 1, 1890, following the Reconstruction period. It was designed to disenfranchise African Americans and prevent them from casting ballots. This was achieved through the implementation of poll taxes and arbitrary literacy tests for voting. White Democrats, driven by their bigotry and prejudice, considered African Americans to be ignorant and immoral and believed that granting them voting rights would be detrimental to their party's interests.
One of the key tactics employed by White Democrats to manipulate the Black vote was the use of literacy tests and poll taxes. While these requirements ostensibly applied to all persons, they were subjectively enforced to target African Americans. The president of the 1890 constitutional convention, Sol S. Calhoon, a judge from Hinds County, Mississippi, made it clear that the purpose of the convention was to exclude African Americans from the political process.
The White Democrats' efforts to disenfranchise African Americans were met with resistance from some individuals, such as Marsh Cook, a white Republican from Jasper County. Cook supported the voting rights of African Americans and attempted to join the convention despite receiving death threats. Unfortunately, he was lynched and killed for his stance. Isaiah Montgomery, the only Black member of the 1890 constitutional convention, collaborated with the White Democrats and advocated for Black disenfranchisement, despite facing outrage from his Black peers.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 set a precedent for other Southern states, leading to the widespread adoption of literacy tests and poll taxes that disproportionately impacted African Americans. This period marked a decline in democratic progress, as African Americans constituted the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi following the Civil War. The constitution's discriminatory impact was further exacerbated by the Supreme Court's unanimous decision in Williams v. Mississippi, which upheld Mississippi's claim that the constitution was not discriminatory.
In addition to the tactics employed in Mississippi, White Democrats in Southern politics have also manipulated district boundaries to dilute the Black vote and maintain their power. Through gerrymandering, White Democrats have been able to place themselves into congressionally Black districts, reducing the overall representation and influence of Black voters. This has led to disproportional representation and marginalized the voices of White Southern Democrats.
Furthermore, there has been internal debate within the Democratic Party about the impact of Black candidates on their electoral prospects. Some argue that a Black candidacy could cripple the chances of more liberal, pro-civil rights Democrats, while others recognize the potential for a Black candidate to inspire a larger Black vote and help elect Black candidates for lesser offices.
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Violence and death threats
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was adopted on November 1, 1890, with the explicit intention of disenfranchising African Americans. This was achieved through the imposition of poll taxes and subjective literacy tests for voting, which were designed to prevent African Americans from voting and regaining political power.
The period leading up to the adoption of the new constitution was marked by violence and death threats against those who opposed the Democrats and supported the voting rights of African Americans. Marsh Cook, a white Republican from Jasper County, received death threats for his support of African American voting rights. Despite the threats, Cook attempted to join the convention, and as a result, was lynched and killed, a common fate for those who opposed the Democrats during that time.
The Mississippi Plan, devised by the Democratic Party, was a strategy to overthrow the Republican Party in Mississippi through organised violence, voter suppression, and intimidation of African Americans and white Republican supporters. White paramilitary organisations, such as the Red Shirts, emerged as the "military arm of the Democratic Party," openly parading and using violence to suppress black voting. This included whippings, murders, and intimidation at the polls, with the support of private financing for weapons.
The success of the Mississippi Plan led to similar strategies being adopted in other majority-black states, resulting in the effective disenfranchisement and disarmament of African Americans across the South. The Democrats' campaign of terrorist violence, coupled with the new constitution, successfully marginalised and prohibited African Americans from participating in Mississippi's civil society for decades.
The federal government's hesitation to intervene, due to political considerations, allowed the violence and voter suppression to continue unchecked. It was not until the late 1960s, with the passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, that African Americans in Mississippi regained the power to vote and participate fully in the state's democracy.
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The role of Isaiah Montgomery
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to disenfranchise African Americans and some poor whites in the state. It was a win for voter suppression and brought an end to the democratic progress that followed the Civil War, when African Americans were the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi.
Montgomery's decision to support these measures has been a subject of debate among scholars. Some suggest that as a businessman, he faced pressure to maintain relationships within the state. Additionally, Montgomery was a former slave of Confederate President Jefferson Davis's brother and was willing to support the Democrats' desires for total African-American voter disenfranchisement. He delivered a speech at the convention advocating for black disenfranchisement, which was approved by the Democrats but outraged his Black peers, who labeled him a "traitor."
Montgomery promoted an accommodationist position for African Americans. He argued that while the understanding clause requiring voters to read and interpret any section of the state constitution was apparently one of unfriendliness" to Blacks, it was in the public interest to prevent illiterates from voting. In his "Address by Montgomery," published in the September 1890 New York World, he accepted wholesale Black disfranchisement as the essential "beginning of the end of the great race question."
Montgomery's political legacy is considered controversial due to his role in the 1890 state constitutional convention. However, he has also been described as "Mississippi's Booker T. Washington," reflecting his pursuit of racial harmony through accommodation.
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The impact on Mississippi's social and economic progress
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 had a profound and lasting impact on the state's social and economic progress. The constitution was explicitly designed to disenfranchise African Americans, ending a period of democratic progress and hindering social and economic development in the state.
Social Impact:
The constitution's primary social impact was the disenfranchisement of African Americans, who made up the majority of eligible voters in Mississippi following the Civil War. This was achieved through the implementation of poll taxes and literacy tests, which were subjectively enforced to prevent African Americans from casting ballots. The constitution also contributed to the solidification of racial segregation and discrimination in the state, with state leaders manipulating issues to create a social structure centered on race rather than class. This racial focus had a lasting impact on Mississippi's social fabric, with the civil rights era being described as a "preordained" response to the constitution's enforcement of white supremacy.
Economic Impact:
While the constitution itself may not have had direct economic policies, its impact on taxation and school funding contributed to Mississippi's low rankings on economic and social measures. The period leading up to 1890 also saw significant economic changes in Mississippi, particularly the growth of the timber industry along the Gulf Coast and the emergence of the seafood industry. However, the constitution's hindrance of social progress likely had indirect economic consequences, affecting the state well into the 20th century.
Overall, the Mississippi Constitution of 1890 had a detrimental impact on the state's social and economic progress. It ended a period of democratic progress and entrenched racial discrimination, with far-reaching consequences for Mississippi's social and economic landscape. The constitution's legacy of voter suppression and racial disenfranchisement continued to affect Mississippi long after its adoption.
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Frequently asked questions
The primary purpose of the Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was to disenfranchise African American voters.
Senator James Z. George was the acknowledged leader of the convention. However, the convention's president was Sol S. Calhoon, a judge from Hinds County.
The constitution introduced literacy tests and poll taxes as requirements for voting.
Yes, in addition to disenfranchising African Americans, the constitution also negatively impacted some poor whites.
