Diplomacy Legends: History's International Peacemakers

Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft. It is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate (diplomat or diplomatist), based on the ancient Greek diploma, which means an object folded in two. This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege. Over the years, many individuals have played a significant role in international diplomacy. Some of the notable ones include Benjamin Franklin, Sir Francis Walsingham, Otto von Bismarck, Thomas Jefferson, and Richard Holbrooke.

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German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck is most famous for his role in German unification, becoming a hero to German nationalists. He served as Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1873 and again from 1873 to 1890. In 1871, he became the first Imperial Chancellor of the newly formed German Empire, a position he would hold until 1890. Bismarck retained control over Prussia and the foreign and domestic policies of the German Empire.

As Chancellor, Bismarck pursued pacific policies in foreign affairs, employing a balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany's position in Europe. He succeeded in preserving peace in Europe for about two decades, earning praise as a visionary who kept the peace through diplomacy. Bismarck's peace-oriented approach, described as "saturated continental diplomacy," was, however, unpopular among those with expansionist ambitions.

Bismarck's diplomatic skills were noted by historians, with Eric Hobsbawm describing him as the "undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess." Bismarck's diplomacy was characterised by his aggressive, ruthless, and flexible approach, transforming European politics and unifying Germany through sheer force of personality.

French author and diplomat François-Auguste-René

François-Auguste-René, vicomte de Chateaubriand, was a French author, Romantic poet, and diplomat. He was born on September 4, 1768, in Saint-Malo, France, and died on July 4, 1848, in Paris. Chateaubriand was the youngest child of an eccentric and impoverished noble family. He is considered one of the first Romantic writers in France and was a preeminent literary figure in the country in the early 19th century, exerting a profound influence on the youth of his time.

Chateaubriand's literary works include the novel "René" (1805), which is a thinly veiled autobiographical work. It tells the story of a young woman who enters a convent rather than surrender to her passion for her brother. With this novel, Chateaubriand initiated the Romantic vogue for world-weary, melancholy heroes suffering from vague, unsatisfied yearnings, a theme later referred to as "le mal du siècle" or "the sickness of the age." Another notable work by Chateaubriand is "Le Génie du christianisme" (1802; "The Genius of Christianity"), a treatise defending Christianity that gained favour with both the Royalists and Napoleon Bonaparte. Chateaubriand's theology was criticised as weak, but his emphasis on the moral superiority of Christianity based on its artistic and poetic appeal had a significant influence on Romantic writers.

In addition to his literary career, Chateaubriand also served as a diplomat and politician. He initially became a cavalry officer but struggled to choose a side during the French Revolution in 1789, eventually choosing to sail to the United States in April 1791. He later held diplomatic posts as an ambassador to Berlin in 1821 and then as an ambassador to London in 1822. Chateaubriand represented France at the Congress of Verona in 1822 and served as the minister of foreign affairs under the ultra-Royalist premier Joseph, comte de Villèle. However, he resigned his post in 1804 in protest of Napoleon's unfair trial and execution of the Duke d’Enghien.

Chateaubriand's impact extended beyond his literary and diplomatic endeavours. It is widely believed that the beef tenderloin dish "chateaubriand" was created and named in his honour by his personal chef. Furthermore, his name is often associated with Romanticism in French literature, and he is considered the founder of this literary movement in France.

Italian Renaissance political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli

Machiavelli served as a senior official in the Florentine Republic, holding positions such as secretary of the second chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512. He was responsible for producing official government documents and handling diplomatic and military affairs. Machiavelli's views on diplomacy were shaped by the political climate of his time, which saw the invention and spread of resident embassies among the turbulent Italian city-states.

One of Machiavelli's notable diplomatic missions was to the papacy in Rome. He was also sent to Pistoia to pacify opposing factions that had erupted in riots, demonstrating his involvement in domestic diplomacy. Machiavelli's most famous work, "The Prince," offers insights into his understanding of international relations and political power. While the book has sparked controversy, some scholars interpret it as a realistic description of political reality rather than a manual for tyrants.

Machiavelli's philosophy centred on the survival of rulers in a treacherous political landscape. He acknowledged the role of deception, treachery, and crime in political success, and his views on negotiation and good faith have been subjects of debate. Machiavelli's legacy in diplomacy extends to his recognition as the "first person to discover the real nature of raison d’état," influencing the methods and strategies employed by ambassadors.

In addition to his diplomatic pursuits, Machiavelli conceived of a militia for Florence, recruiting citizens instead of relying on mercenaries. This citizen-soldier army conquered Pisa in 1509, showcasing his military acumen. Machiavelli's contributions to political philosophy and his impact on diplomatic theory continue to be studied and debated by scholars.

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US naval officer Matthew C. Perry

International diplomacy has been a key aspect of global politics for centuries, with many notable figures leaving their mark on history. One such individual is US naval officer Matthew C. Perry, who played a significant role in opening up Japan to the West in the mid-19th century.

Born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, on April 10, 1794, Matthew Calbraith Perry came from a family with a strong naval tradition. His father, Christopher Raymond Perry, was a Navy Captain, and his brother, Oliver Hazard Perry, achieved fame during the War of 1812. Following in their footsteps, Matthew joined the US Navy and rose through the ranks, eventually becoming a captain and, later, a commodore—a title he retained for life.

Perry is best known for leading the expedition that ended Japan's isolation and established diplomatic and trade relations with the West. For centuries, Japan had pursued an isolationist policy, keeping out foreign influences. However, Perry recognised the strategic importance of Japan for the United States, particularly as a potential base for Pacific mail runs and a source of supplies for American ships. In 1852, President Millard Fillmore tasked him with leading a naval expedition to induce the Japanese government to establish diplomatic relations with the United States.

Perry's expedition set sail in November 1852, and in July 1853, he arrived in the fortified harbour of Uraga with two frigates and two sailing vessels. He refused to leave, insisting that the Japanese accept a letter from the President of the United States requesting a treaty. The Japanese defences were inadequate to resist him, and after a brief standoff, they accepted the letter. Perry returned to Japan in February 1854 with an even stronger force of nine ships, and on March 31, the Treaty of Kanagawa was concluded. This treaty assured better treatment of shipwrecked American sailors, permitted US ships to obtain fuel and supplies at Japanese ports, and opened the way for further US trading privileges in Japan.

Perry's expedition had far-reaching consequences, not only for Japan but also for the geopolitical balance in East Asia. The United States now stood as an equal power with Britain, France, and Russia in the economic exploitation of the region. Perry's success also highlighted the Shogun's inability to enforce Japan's isolationist policy, ultimately contributing to the collapse of the shogunate and the country's subsequent modernisation.

In addition to his diplomatic achievements, Perry was also known as "The Father of the Steam Navy" due to his advocacy for modernising the US Navy with steam-powered vessels. He oversaw the construction of the Navy's second steam frigate, the USS Fulton, and organised America's first corps of naval engineers. Perry's contributions to naval education were also significant, as he helped establish the curriculum at the United States Naval Academy.

US diplomat Richard Holbrooke

Richard Holbrooke was an influential American diplomat, negotiator, and peace envoy. Born in 1941 in New York City to a European Jewish couple who fled the Nazis in the 1930s, Holbrooke had a career in diplomacy that spanned several decades and multiple presidential administrations.

Holbrooke's diplomatic career began in 1962 when he joined the Foreign Service after graduating from Brown University. He was posted to Vietnam, where he served until 1966. This experience, along with his subsequent work in Washington, D.C., on President Lyndon Johnson's Vietnam staff, led to his selection as a junior member of the U.S. delegation to the Paris Peace Talks in 1968-69. During this time, he also served with other young diplomats who would later play significant roles in American foreign policy, including John Negroponte and Frank G. Wisner.

In the 1970s, Holbrooke held various positions in the government and the private sector. He served as Peace Corps director in Morocco from 1970 to 1972 and then edited the quarterly magazine Foreign Policy from 1972 to 1976. In 1977, he returned to the government when President Jimmy Carter appointed him assistant secretary of state for East Asian and Pacific affairs.

Holbrooke's most notable achievements in diplomacy, however, came in the 1990s. He served as the U.S. ambassador to Germany from 1993 to 1994 and then as assistant secretary of state for European and Canadian affairs from 1994 to 1995. During this time, he focused on the Balkans and played a crucial role in negotiating the Dayton Accords, which ended the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Several considered Holbrooke's role in the Dayton Accords worthy of the Nobel Peace Prize.

In 1998, Holbrooke returned to the Balkans to negotiate a ceasefire between Serbs and the ethnic Albanian majority in the Kosovo conflict. While his efforts did not immediately end the fighting, they laid the groundwork for a tenuous peace that was eventually achieved through NATO intervention. In 1999, Holbrooke became the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, where he negotiated a historic deal to settle long-standing tensions and financial disputes between the United States and the UN.

Holbrooke's diplomatic career continued into the 2000s. He left the government in 2001 to serve in the private sector but returned to public service in 2009 when he was appointed special representative to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the administration of President Barack Obama. Holbrooke's premature death in December 2010 cut short a distinguished career in diplomacy, and he has been remembered as a towering figure in American diplomacy.

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