Simone Lawson
Big stick diplomacy was a political approach used by the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt. The term big stick was derived from the phrase speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far, which Roosevelt claimed was a West African proverb. This approach involved negotiating peacefully while also having the strength of the military as a backup in case things went wrong. While this approach was used by Roosevelt, there were some who opposed imperialism and sought honesty and unselfishness in international affairs, such as Woodrow Wilson.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Opposed big stick diplomacy | Woodrow Wilson |
| Philosophy | Wanted honesty and unselfishness in international affairs |
| Reason | Strongly opposed imperialism |
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What You'll Learn
Woodrow Wilson's opposition to imperialism
Woodrow Wilson, born a decade before the Civil War, came from a family that owned slaves and defended slavery on biblical grounds. Wilson's career was marked by racist ideologies and practices. As president of Princeton University, he refused to admit Black students and kept the university segregated.
Wilson's predecessors, including McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, and Taft, viewed the United States as an emerging power that needed to expand its influence globally to serve national interests. This imperialist policy was justified by the belief that it was America's duty as a Christian republic to spread democracy worldwide. However, Wilson abandoned this imperialist policy and brought a new perspective to America's relations with the outside world. He believed that all peoples had the right to self-determination and that the people in every country should choose their governments.
Wilson's rhetoric raised expectations in the colonized world, but his actions, along with those of his European allies, failed to meet these expectations. He promoted a racialized notion of the principles of democracy and self-determination that were compatible with imperial rule. His ideas were challenged by Black American scholars and anti-colonial thinkers who proposed their own revolutionary conceptions of self-determination, democracy, and the international system.
Despite his loathing of imperialism and deep belief in self-determination, Wilson resorted to military action in Latin America, just like his predecessors. In 1915, he responded to the chronic revolution in Haiti by sending American marines to restore order, and he did the same in the Dominican Republic in 1916. He also purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark for $25 million, practising an old-fashioned form of imperialism. Wilson's greatest challenge came from Mexico, where he responded with force when the dictator's army seized a group of American sailors. He sent American marines to occupy Veracruz, Mexico's primary seaport, resulting in the death of eighteen Americans.
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Roosevelt's support for the Panamanian revolution
The Panamanian Revolution of 1903 saw Panama declare independence from Colombia. The revolution was engineered by a Panamanian faction backed by the Panama Canal Company, a French-US corporation. The Panama Canal Company was supported by the US government, which wanted to build a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
US President Theodore Roosevelt played a key role in the events leading up to the revolution. In 1903, the Hay-Herrán Treaty was signed with Colombia, granting the US use of the Isthmus of Panama in exchange for financial compensation. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty, fearing a loss of sovereignty. In response, Roosevelt gave tacit approval to a rebellion by Panamanian nationalists, which began on November 3, 1903.
Roosevelt carefully avoided publicly endorsing the revolt, but he made it clear that the US would view a successful Panamanian revolution positively. He also warned the separatists to avoid violence, as the American people would not recognize independence gained through bloodshed. Roosevelt's administration also provided financial support to the separatists, with Philippe Bunau-Varilla, an engineer and central figure in the scheme to detach Panama from Colombia, writing a $100,000 check to fund the revolt. In return, Bunau-Varilla became Panama's representative in Washington.
The revolution ultimately succeeded, and Panama gained independence from Colombia. The US and Panama signed a treaty in 1903-1904, granting the US the right to build and fortify the Panama Canal. The canal was completed in 1914, and US control of the canal became a source of tension in US-Panamanian relations.
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The US's Canal Diplomacy in Nicaragua
The United States' pursuit of a canal across Central America, specifically in Nicaragua, was a notable instance of "big stick diplomacy", a political approach used by President Theodore Roosevelt. This approach involved negotiating peacefully while also having the military strength to enforce demands if needed.
In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pushed the Nicaraguan government to approve a canal. The proposed deal included a one-time payment of $1.5 million, annual payments of $100,000, and a guarantee of "sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity" from the US. Nicaragua countered, requesting a larger upfront payment of $6 million instead of the annual payments. The US accepted, but a legal issue arose regarding court jurisdiction. Pro-Panama representatives further complicated the situation, and the deal fell through.
The US had also been negotiating with Panama for a canal. After the Nicaraguan deal collapsed, the US Senate voted in favour of the Panama route in 1902. However, Colombia, which then included Panama, rejected the financial terms of the deal. In response, Roosevelt sent US warships to support Panamanian independence, which was declared in 1903. The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903 granted the US a 10-mile-wide strip of land for the canal, and the US guaranteed Panama's independence.
The British opposed the idea of a canal in Nicaragua. They argued that it would give American shipping a competitive advantage and negatively impact British maritime interests. The British had historical ties to Central America and were expected to use diplomatic resistance to counter the proposal.
The US also employed "dollar diplomacy" in Nicaragua, providing loans to the country to gain influence and support its interests. In 1911, the US and Nicaragua signed a loan convention, with Nicaragua agreeing to refund its internal and external debts and protect the American-appointed Collector of Customs.
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Roosevelt's belief in the Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine, which was asserted in the early nineteenth century, warned European powers to keep their hands off countries in the Americas. However, Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which he announced in his annual message to Congress in December 1904, expanded the Monroe Doctrine's scope. Roosevelt's Corollary stated that the United States could intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries if they committed flagrant wrongdoings that "loosened the ties of civilized society".
Roosevelt's Corollary was also consistent with his "Big Stick" foreign policy, derived from the phrase "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far", which he claimed was a West African proverb. This approach involved negotiating peacefully but also having the military strength to back up diplomatic objectives if things went wrong. Roosevelt used this approach to enforce the Monroe Doctrine through multiple interventions in Latin America. For example, in 1901, the U.S. used the "big stick" during "Canal Diplomacy", pursuing a canal across Central America.
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Roosevelt's approach to gunboat diplomacy
Gunboat diplomacy is a term that refers to achieving foreign-policy objectives through displays of naval might. It is considered a form of hegemony, or the political, economic, and military predominance of one country over others. The concept emerged during the nineteenth century when Western powers, including the United States and European nations, competed to establish colonial empires in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.
Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States, is often credited with expanding America's use of gunboat diplomacy. Roosevelt's approach to gunboat diplomacy, also known as the Big Stick policy, was derived from the phrase, "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far," which he claimed was a West African proverb. This approach had five components:
- Possessing serious military capability that would force adversaries to pay attention: Roosevelt emphasized the importance of having a strong navy, as he never had a large army during his early years in office.
- Peaceful negotiation: Roosevelt's policy involved negotiating peacefully while having the strength of the military as a backup.
- Enforcing the Monroe Doctrine: Roosevelt used his military muscle to enforce the Monroe Doctrine during interventions in Latin America.
- Illustrating the rising prestige of the United States: Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet, consisting of 16 battleships, on a 14-month tour around the world to showcase America's naval power.
- Policing debtor nations with unstable governments: Roosevelt's Big Stick policy was applied in Latin America and the Caribbean to influence small nations that had unstable governments and were debtors to the United States.
Roosevelt's brand of gunboat diplomacy was used to justify the US military occupations of Cuba in 1906, Nicaragua in 1912, and Veracruz, Mexico, in 1914. As the United States' military power grew, Roosevelt's approach was partially superseded by dollar diplomacy during the presidency of William Howard Taft, which offered the "juicy carrot" of American private investment instead of the stick of military force.
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