Eleanor Finch
The term preventive diplomacy was first used by United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. It refers to the role of the United Nations in preventing conflicts and establishing world peace. Preventive diplomacy involves taking proactive actions to prevent disputes between parties, stop existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and limit the spread of conflicts when they occur. Since the Cold War, the international community has increasingly focused on preventive diplomacy, recognising the high costs of managing conflicts.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First used by | Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld |
| First used in | The United Nations |
| First used in relation to | Preventing disputes between lesser powers and stopping them from escalating into superpower conflicts |
| First used | Nearly half a century ago |
| Defined as | Pro-active actions, not reactive responses to international crises |
| Can be implemented by | The UN, regional organisations, NGO networks and individual states |
| Examples of in action | The UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) in 1995-1999; Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar's fact-finding mission to Bulgaria and Turkey in 1989; Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim's work on the border disputes between Iran and Iraq in the 1960s |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the United Nations
The idea of preventive diplomacy has captivated the United Nations since it was first introduced by Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. Preventive diplomacy was foreshadowed by Article 99 of the United Nations Charter, which empowers the Secretary-General to bring to the attention of the Security Council any issues that might endanger international peace and security.
The United Nations has played a significant role in advancing the concept of preventive diplomacy, which involves taking action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, stop existing disputes from escalating, and limit the spread of conflicts. Since the Cold War, the high costs of managing conflicts have driven the international community, including the United Nations, regional organisations, and global and regional powers, to embrace preventive diplomacy.
The UN has implemented preventive diplomacy through various means, including peacekeeping missions, conflict early warning systems, and fact-finding missions. For example, the UN's peacekeeping mission in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) from 1995 to 1999 was the first UN preventive action. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who served during the hopeful period following the Cold War, practiced preventive diplomacy in the war between Eritrea and Yemen and supported the deployment of UN peacekeepers in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Additionally, Secretary-General Kofi Annan built on the work of his predecessors and successfully exercised preventive diplomacy in the border conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria over the Bakassi Peninsula. The current Secretary-General continues to play a crucial role in spearheading conflict prevention by fostering diplomacy, democracy, and human rights at the country level. This includes addressing issues such as extreme poverty alleviation and the empowerment of women, which are essential for enhancing human dignity and successful conflict prevention.
Overall, preventive diplomacy remains one of the core principles of the United Nations, and the organisation continues to play a vital role in its implementation, often in collaboration with regional organisations, NGO networks, and individual states.
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The Cuban Missile Crisis
The term "preventive diplomacy" was first articulated by United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. The practice of preventive diplomacy has been carried forward by subsequent UN Secretary-Generals, including U Thant, whose role in preventing a nuclear confrontation during the Cuban Missile Crisis is considered a prime example of preventive diplomacy.
In July 1962, the Soviet Union, led by Premier Nikita Khrushchev, began sending missile shipments to Cuba, as part of an agreement with Cuban Premier Fidel Castro. This was discovered by the United States through intelligence reports and U-2 spy plane surveillance flights. On September 4, 1962, President John F. Kennedy issued a public warning against the introduction of offensive weapons into Cuba. However, on October 14, U.S. intelligence confirmed the presence of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missile sites under construction in Cuba.
Faced with this threat, Kennedy secretly met with his advisors to consider a course of action. Some, including the Joint Chiefs of Staff, advocated for an air strike to destroy the missile sites. However, Kennedy ultimately decided on a naval "quarantine" or blockade of Cuba to prevent further Soviet shipments of missiles. On October 22, Kennedy publicly announced the quarantine and warned that the United States would seize any offensive weapons bound for Cuba. This address was followed by a series of direct and indirect communications between Kennedy and Khrushchev, marked by miscalculations and miscommunications.
The situation escalated, bringing the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war. On October 24, American and Soviet naval vessels came into close proximity, with a USSR submarine captain authorized to use nuclear weapons in defence. However, through continued negotiations, Kennedy and Khrushchev managed to step back from the brink. On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to halt work on the missile sites and return the missiles to the Soviet Union. In exchange, Kennedy pledged that the United States would not invade Cuba and secretly promised to withdraw its nuclear-armed missiles from Turkey.
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The need for long-term diplomatic presence
The concept of preventive diplomacy has captivated the United Nations since it was first articulated by Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. It refers to the proactive actions and initiatives of the secretary-general and the deployment of peacekeeping forces to prevent and contain conflicts, both internal and external, and to maintain international peace and security.
The European Institute of Peace (EIP) has emphasized the importance of providing diplomats with a clear overview of preventive diplomacy options. This includes concise examples and cases of prevention, along with information about the tools and mechanisms used in different institutional contexts. By learning from these diverse approaches, diplomats can be better equipped to adapt their strategies and engage in effective preventive diplomacy.
Long-term diplomatic presence also facilitates the development of strong relationships and trust with local communities. This trust is essential for gaining access to valuable information, understanding the underlying causes of conflicts, and designing appropriate interventions. Furthermore, a permanent diplomatic presence can help build local capacity for peacebuilding and conflict resolution, empowering communities to address tensions before they escalate.
In conclusion, the long-term diplomatic presence is vital for effective preventive diplomacy. It enables diplomats to develop the necessary networks, gain a deep understanding of the context, build trust with local communities, and design interventions that are tailored to the specific needs of the region. By investing in long-term diplomatic engagement, the international community can more effectively prevent and contain conflicts, ultimately saving lives and promoting sustainable peace.
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The use of peacekeeping forces
Preventive diplomacy is a term used to describe diplomatic initiatives aimed at preventing disputes between parties, stopping existing disputes from escalating, and limiting the spread of conflicts. One of the key tools of preventive diplomacy is the stationing of peacekeeping forces, which have been used by the United Nations and other organisations to contain local conflicts and prevent escalation, including the involvement of superpowers.
Another important principle is that UN peacekeeping operations are not an enforcement tool and should only use force as a last resort. While they may use force at the tactical level with the authorisation of the Security Council and the consent of the host nation and/or main parties, it should always be calibrated precisely, proportionally, and appropriately, within the principle of minimum force necessary. This is because the use of force by peacekeeping operations has significant political implications and can lead to unforeseen circumstances.
Despite these principles, there have been situations where UN peacekeeping operations have been given "robust" mandates by the Security Council. In volatile situations, these mandates authorise peacekeepers to use all necessary means to deter attempts to disrupt the political process, protect civilians under imminent threat, and assist national authorities in maintaining law and order. However, this type of robust peacekeeping should not be confused with peace enforcement, which does not require the consent of the main parties and may involve the use of military force.
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The legal basis for preventive diplomacy
Preventive diplomacy (PD) is a post-Cold War strategy that aims to prevent disputes from arising between parties, stop existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and limit the spread of conflicts when they do occur. The United Nations Organisation (UN) is best suited to conduct PD by preventing disputes and conflicts from arising in interstate and intrastate relationships.
The UN Charter sets out the legal basis of PD for the UN, regional, and sub-regional organisations. While the UN derives its mandate to conduct PD from Articles in its Charter, its options are limited to the peaceful settlement of disputes. The UN is rebalancing its capabilities so that diplomats and mediators can be mobilised as first responders.
The diplomatic initiatives of the secretary-general and the stationing of peacekeeping forces have served to contain local conflicts and prevent escalation, especially the involvement of superpowers. An example of preventive diplomacy is the UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) from 1995 to 1999, which was the first UN preventive action.
Preventive measures include conflict early warning, fact-finding by UN missions, and, in some situations, preventive deployment.
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Frequently asked questions
The term preventive diplomacy was first used by Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld.
Preventive diplomacy is the idea of taking action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to stop existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and to limit the spread of conflicts.
Some examples of preventive diplomacy include the UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) in 1995–1999 and the deployment of UN peacekeepers during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War.
The goal of preventive diplomacy is to prevent conflicts and establish world peace. It aims to take proactive actions to address international crises and maintain international peace and security.
Preventive diplomacy can be implemented by various entities, including the UN, regional organizations, NGO networks, and individual states.
