Malcolm Rivera
Diplomacy is the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. It is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or the gathering of intelligence, with embassies acting as bases for both diplomats and spies. Modern diplomatic practices are a product of the post-Renaissance European state system, with the rules of modern diplomacy being further developed between 1500 and 1700. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate (diplomat or diplomatist), based on the ancient Greek diploma, which means an object folded in two. With that in mind, which diplomacy was the most effective?
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What You'll Learn
The Marshall Plan
The ERP focused on modernizing European industrial and business practices, reducing trade barriers, and fostering a sense of hope and self-reliance. By 1952, when the funding ended, the economies of all participant states had surpassed pre-war levels, with output in 1951 at least 35% higher than in 1938. The Western European countries involved experienced a rise in their gross national products of 15 to 25 percent during this period. The plan also contributed significantly to the rapid renewal of the Western European chemical, engineering, and steel industries.
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The Non-Proliferation Treaty
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty that aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology. The NPT is the centrepiece of global efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation and promote cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The NPT was opened for signature in 1968 and entered into force in 1970. It is the most widely adhered-to treaty in the field of nuclear non-proliferation, with 191 states parties.
Under the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states parties commit not to manufacture or acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. In contrast, nuclear-weapon states parties agree not to assist, encourage, or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state party to acquire nuclear weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is entrusted with key verification responsibilities under the Treaty, ensuring that non-nuclear-weapon states fulfil their obligations.
The NPT has been successful in discouraging nuclear proliferation and has made it easier to monitor states with nuclear ambitions. In the 1960s, experts predicted over 40 nuclear-weapon states by 2000, but this did not occur due to the NPT. However, critics argue that the NPT has not entirely stopped the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and there is limited progress on nuclear disarmament. As of 2023, the five authorized nuclear-weapon states still possess a combined stockpile of 13,400 warheads.
The NPT provides for a review of the Treaty's operation every five years. In 1995, the parties agreed to extend the Treaty indefinitely. In 2003, North Korea became the first state to withdraw from the NPT, publicly declaring its possession of nuclear weapons and pulling out of multilateral talks. Despite challenges and criticisms, the NPT remains a significant global effort to prevent nuclear proliferation and promote peaceful nuclear energy cooperation.
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Opening to China
The "Opening to China" in 1972 was a significant event in modern diplomacy and a smart geopolitical move by US President Richard Nixon. It marked the end of the long US ostracism of China, symbolising a new era in global geopolitics and China's development.
The thaw in relations began with an unexpected encounter between American and Chinese ping-pong athletes, Glenn Cowan and Zhuang Zedong, in 1971, which came to be known as "ping-pong diplomacy". This led to the American ping-pong team's visit to China, paving the way for the development of official ties between the two countries. Chairman Mao Zedong personally approved the visit, which was the first by Americans to China since the communist takeover. This early exchange broke down barriers and opened up communication between the two countries, smoothing the way for future trade partnerships.
In 1979, Deng Xiaoping, then China's vice-premier, became the first Chinese leader to visit the United States since the communists took control in 1949. Deng was eager to learn from the US about modernising China, visiting various companies and institutions. This visit symbolised an end to the "period of unpleasantness", as Deng described it, and brought about a shift in US diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China in Taipei to the People's Republic of China in Beijing.
Since the 1970s, China-US relations have experienced both positive and negative moments, with complexities arising over issues such as China's militarisation of the South China Sea, alleged currency manipulation, and espionage. Despite these challenges, the relationship has continued to move forward, with both sides recognising the importance of mutual respect, dialogue, and cooperation in advancing their relations.
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Regional Stability
Another strategy is to foster mutual understanding between nations, which can lead to the advancement of national interests and the creation of an environment receptive to those interests. This can be achieved through public diplomacy programs, cultural exchanges, and people-to-people exchange programs.
In regions with a history of conflict, stabilization diplomacy is crucial. This involves managing relations, de-escalating conflicts, and preventing their escalation. It includes confidence-building measures, arms control, and strengthening non-proliferation regimes. For example, in the Middle East, diplomacy aims to support the development of democracy and find a peaceful solution to the conflicts between Israel, Egypt, and the Palestinians.
Military diplomacy also plays a significant role in regional stability. Military exercises and partnerships between nations can enhance interoperability, provide cultural exchange, and contribute to economic growth. The presence of the U.S. military in regions like Japan, South Korea, and Germany has led to economic enhancement through commercial contracting, service member contributions, and foreign military sales.
Additionally, regional and sub-regional organizations, such as the European Union and the African Union, contribute to peace and stability by providing in-depth knowledge and facilitating progress toward peace and security. Their involvement increases trust, fosters institutionalization, and minimizes the risks of clashes and transnational security threats.
To promote regional stability, it is essential to address the root causes of conflicts and prioritize preventive diplomacy. This includes strengthening early warning and response mechanisms, enhancing coordination, and providing foreign assistance to address fragility and mitigate conflicts. National and regional leadership are vital in achieving long-term regional stability and fostering private sector-led growth.
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Environmental Stewardship
One of the earliest examples of environmental diplomacy was the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention in 1911, which successfully banned pelagic sealing and marked the beginning of a long history of bilateral cooperation between the United States and Great Britain on resource use and pollution control. In 1973, the creation of the Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES) within the US State Department further demonstrated the country's commitment to environmental diplomacy. The OES has played a crucial role in negotiating and implementing key treaties and agreements, such as those focused on conserving the unique resources of the Arctic and Antarctic and upholding the international moratorium on commercial whaling.
More recently, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has emerged as a prominent example of environmental diplomacy, leading to international agreements like the Paris Agreement, which sets out goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global warming. The State Department has identified five key environmental challenges that are a priority for regional and bilateral environmental diplomacy: water resources, air quality, energy resources, land use, and urban and industrial growth. These issues, including climate change, toxic chemicals and pesticides, biological diversity, forest loss, and ocean degradation, require collective action from all nations.
The concept of "eco-diplomacy" or "sustainable diplomacy" has also emerged, with countries using diplomatic strategies to showcase their alignment with environmental stewardship values and gain diplomatic advantages in the era of global climate change. This involves incorporating environmental considerations into economic decision-making and emphasising cooperation and sustainability.
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Frequently asked questions
Some examples of effective diplomacy include the Marshall Plan, the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and Nixon's decision to end the US's ostracism of China.
Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft. It is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It is closely linked to espionage or the gathering of intelligence.
Diplomacy is conducted through international dialogue and negotiation, primarily by accredited envoys and other political leaders. It is often conducted in confidence, but the fact that it is in progress and its results are usually made public.
Diplomacy is a far less expensive, more effective, and more predictable strategy than war. It is a vital tool in an interconnected world to ensure that shared challenges are resolved. Diplomacy is also a key vehicle for small states to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena.
