Simone Lawson
Diplomacy plays a crucial role in wartime, focusing on subversion, propaganda campaigns, and building support for one's cause while undermining enemies. Wartime diplomacy during World War I and World War II involved complex interactions and power dynamics among major players. World War I accelerated changes in diplomacy, with the Russian Revolution of 1917 producing a regime that rejected Western views and discredited traditional aristocratic diplomacy. The Soviet Union's diplomatic goals in World War II shifted from seeking support against German invasion to creating satellite states as victory neared. The United States, led by Roosevelt, played a significant role in World War II diplomacy, aiming for a postwar United Nations controlled by the Big Three. Ethnic groups within the US influenced its diplomatic stance, and Roosevelt's personal relationship with Stalin was pivotal. Conference diplomacy, revived in World War I, continued in the 1920s, with Woodrow Wilson advocating for open covenants of peace. Wartime diplomacy also involves financial strategies, as seen with the Inter-Allied Finance Council in World War I and the Lend-Lease program in World War II. While diplomacy may struggle when capitulation is required, it remains essential for ending conflicts through negotiation and shaping post-war relations.
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What You'll Learn
The role of diplomacy in World War I
The diplomatic history of World War I covers the non-military interactions between the major players during the conflict. Wartime diplomacy focused on five key issues: subversion, propaganda campaigns, distribution of finances, cooperation with allies, and attempts to maintain neutrality.
The Allied Powers, including Great Britain, France, Russia (until 1917), Italy (from 1915), and the United States (from 1917), had a multidimensional approach to diplomacy. They understood the importance of gaining support for their cause and undermining their enemies through propaganda. The Inter-Allied Finance Council, led by the United States, was responsible for distributing finances among the Allies, and various other councils dealt with purchasing food and shipping. British diplomacy focused on initiatives with leading allies, propaganda efforts targeting neutral countries, and undermining the German economy through naval blockades.
The Central Powers, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), and Bulgaria, also engaged in diplomatic efforts. Germany, for example, objected to the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign against Britain in 1917, but their concerns were overruled by the military command.
World War I accelerated changes in diplomacy, with the Russian Revolution of 1917 producing a regime that rejected Western views and used political language differently. The Soviet Union abolished diplomatic ranks and published secret treaties from the czarist archives, discrediting the traditional aristocratic diplomacy of Europe.
The Paris Peace Conference after the war, led by US President Woodrow Wilson, aimed for "open covenants of peace openly arrived at." The League of Nations was established as the first permanent major international organization, marking a shift towards parliamentary diplomacy and acknowledging the equality of states.
In conclusion, diplomacy played a critical role during World War I, influencing alliances, finances, propaganda, and the peace agreements that shaped the interwar period. The war also marked a turning point in diplomatic practices, with the emergence of new powers and the rejection of traditional aristocratic diplomacy.
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The role of diplomacy in World War II
The Diplomatic history of World War II includes the major foreign policies and interactions inside the opposing coalitions, the Allies and the Axis powers. The Allies included Britain, France (until 1940), the Soviet Union (after 1941), and the United States. They were joined by numerous smaller countries, such as Canada, as well as governments in exile, such as the Netherlands.
Britain, the USSR, and the US were in frequent contact through ambassadors, generals, foreign ministers, and special emissaries. There were also numerous high-level conferences, including three summit conferences that brought together the three top leaders: Winston Churchill of Britain, Franklin D. Roosevelt of the US, and Joseph Stalin of the USSR.
The Soviet Union's main diplomatic goal at first was to win support to defend against the massive German invasion. With victory in sight by 1944, Moscow began creating satellite states, first of all in Poland and East Germany. The main British goals were to defeat the German threat, maintain British roles in Central and Eastern Europe, and preserve the British Empire. The US war against Japan was not just about destroying Japanese supremacy in the Pacific, China, and Southeast Asia. It also involved Australia, which played a support role and moved to a close relationship with the US, causing Australia's Prime Minister to state that the country now "looks to America".
After the war, diplomacy revolved around the Cold War and the United Nations, which was created in 1945. The US focused its efforts on building up the Japanese economy, and Mount Vernon became an important space for visiting political leaders whose countries had received aid from the US.
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The impact of domestic pressures on diplomatic decisions
In the United States during World War I, ethnic groups pressured the Wilson administration to remain neutral or actively support the Allies. For instance, Jewish Americans opposed aiding the Allies due to their hostility towards Russia, but this objection was removed when the tsarist regime fell in 1917. Similarly, Irish Catholics were hostile to supporting Great Britain, and Wilson attempted to placate them by promising to address the issue of Irish independence after the war. However, his failure to keep this promise led to a furious response from Irish Catholics, who held political influence in the Democratic Party. These domestic pressures influenced Wilson's diplomatic decisions and the overall conduct of the war.
During World War II, the entry of the Soviet Union into the war in June 1941 altered the diplomatic landscape, creating a three-way relationship between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. Roosevelt's personal relationship with Stalin played a crucial role in wartime diplomacy, as he sought to resolve issues through the creation of a postwar United Nations rather than direct confrontation. Roosevelt's hostility towards the British, French, and other empires also influenced his diplomatic approach, as he aimed to interfere with India's relationship with Britain. However, he was forced to postpone these plans due to pressure from Churchill.
Domestic instability and political factionalism in Romania during World War II also provide an example of the impact of domestic pressures on diplomatic decisions. A series of unfavorable territorial disputes in 1940 led to a loss of popular support for the Romanian government, strengthening fascist and military factions. This eventually resulted in a coup that installed a dictatorship under Mareșal Ion Antonescu, who joined the Axis powers and committed Romanian troops to the Eastern Front, contributing to the persecution and massacre of Jews.
Additionally, China's position during World War I illustrates the interplay between domestic pressures and diplomatic choices. China was initially neutral, but its financial chaos, political instability, and military weakness left it vulnerable to Japanese and British military forces. China's decision to declare war on Germany in 1917 was driven by the hope of attending the postwar peace conference and finding allies to counter Japanese expansion.
Overall, domestic pressures exerted by ethnic groups, political factions, and public opinion shaped the diplomatic decisions made by leaders during World War I and World War II, impacting alliances, territorial disputes, and the formation of postwar organizations.
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The use of diplomacy to undermine enemies
Diplomacy has been used as a tool of war since ancient times, with the ancient Greeks and Persians engaging in diplomatic relations and ancient Indian kingdoms and dynasties having a long tradition of diplomacy. During World War I, diplomacy was used in various ways to undermine enemies. One of the primary goals of wartime diplomacy was to build support for one's cause and weaken the morale of the enemy through subversion and propaganda campaigns. For example, British diplomacy during World War I focused on initiatives to undermine the German economy, particularly through a naval blockade. They also subsidised the American cotton industry to ensure support for the war effort, while also engaging in successful propaganda efforts to mould American opinion in favour of the Allied cause.
The German Foreign Minister, Richard von Kühlmann, stated that one of his main diplomatic goals was to subvert enemy states and make peace with breakaway states, thereby undermining the political unity of the Entente. Germany also attempted to use money and propaganda to undermine the morale of the Allies, including Muslims within the British, Russian, and Ottoman Empires. However, Germany's propaganda efforts were largely ineffective compared to those of the Allies, who emphasised the triumph of liberal ideas and a war to end all wars.
During World War II, the United States stepped up its diplomatic efforts after entering the war, providing significant financial and economic assistance to its allies. Roosevelt, troubled by Moscow's aggressive intentions, decided to focus on his persuasive personal relationship with Stalin, hoping to resolve problems through the creation of a postwar United Nations. The Soviet Union's diplomatic goals shifted as the war progressed; initially seeking support to defend against the German invasion, they later turned to creating satellite states in Poland and East Germany.
Ethnic groups within the United States also influenced diplomatic relations during World War I. For example, Wilson neutralised the issue of Irish Catholic hostility towards supporting Great Britain by promising to address Irish independence after the war, although he ultimately did not fulfil this promise. In the case of China during World War I, their weak position led them to declare war on Germany as a technicality to be eligible to attend the postwar peace conference, hoping to find allies to counter Japanese expansion.
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The role of diplomacy in ending wars
Diplomacy plays a crucial role in ending wars, although it may not always succeed. Wars can end through negotiation or capitulation, and diplomacy is essential for negotiating the terms of a capitulation. An understanding of the opponent's motivations is necessary to determine whether negotiation or military victory is the best course of action. For example, against an opponent driven by an insatiable desire for conquest, capitulation through military force may be the only option. On the other hand, negotiation can lead to a peaceful resolution that addresses the security concerns of both parties.
During World War I, conference diplomacy was revived and continued after the war, especially in the 1920s. The Paris Peace Conference, proposed by US President Woodrow Wilson, aimed for "open covenants of peace openly arrived at." While the negotiations were mostly closed, the resulting treaties were published and approved by legislatures, as Wilson had intended. This period also saw the rise of new diplomatic styles, with the Soviet Union publishing secret treaties from the czarist archives to discredit traditional aristocratic diplomacy.
In the lead-up to World War II, diplomacy played a role in territorial disputes and alliances. The British government, in contrast to World War I, did not form an Imperial War Cabinet during World War II, impacting its relationship with the dominions. The entry of the United States into World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor significantly influenced the diplomatic landscape, with American diplomacy stepping up and Roosevelt seeking to enhance his Good Neighbor policy and promote Pan-Americanism through cultural diplomacy. Roosevelt also played a key role in the creation of a postwar United Nations, which Stalin initially supported.
In summary, diplomacy is a critical tool for ending wars through negotiation or shaping the terms of capitulation. It involves addressing security concerns, resolving territorial disputes, and forming alliances. While it may not always succeed, diplomacy offers a means to pursue peaceful resolutions and shape the future of international relations.
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Frequently asked questions
Wartime diplomacy during World War I focused on subversion and propaganda campaigns to build support for one's cause or to undermine support for one's enemies. Conference diplomacy was revived during the war and continued afterward, especially during the 1920s. The United States, which had virtually all the available money by 1917, handled the issues of distributing money among the Allies.
Diplomacy played a minor factor for the Axis powers during World War II. Hitler had full control of German diplomatic policies and imposed his will on his allies in Eastern Europe. On the other hand, American diplomacy stepped up after the US entered the war in December 1941 and was bolstered by large quantities of financial and economic assistance. The British government, unlike in World War I, did not form an Imperial War Cabinet during World War II.
Diplomacy plays a role in ending wars by seeking to end conflicts through negotiation rather than violence. However, it is important to note that diplomacy does not always succeed, and a negotiated agreement to end a war may set the stage for further conflict. Capitulation, which includes military occupation and regime change, may be required in some cases.
