Big Stick Diplomacy: Spanish-American War Roots And Legacy

The Spanish-American War of 1898 was a conflict between the United States and Spain, resulting in the US gaining several new territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This war marked the beginning of American imperialism and was a significant event in the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, who would later become known for his Big Stick diplomacy. Roosevelt's foreign policy approach, known as the Big Stick ideology, emphasized peaceful negotiation but also advocated for military strength and interventionism, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean. This policy, also known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, asserted US dominance and intervention in the region, with Roosevelt proclaiming the US as the policeman of the Western Hemisphere.

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Roosevelt's belief in the US as a civilizing power

Big stick diplomacy, or big stick ideology, was a political approach used by the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt. The term "big stick" was derived from an aphorism often used by Roosevelt: "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far". This ideology was built on Roosevelt's belief in the inevitable conflict between the "civilized" and "barbarian" peoples of the world.

Roosevelt believed that the United States was a great civilizing power and, therefore, had an obligation and right to bring order to the world. This belief was influenced by the racial attitudes of his time, as he believed that the African American race was inferior to whites, but that superior Black individuals should be able to prove their merit. He saw the United States as a "civilized" nation that had a responsibility to intervene in the affairs of "uncivilized" nations." This intervention could take the form of military action, as seen in the Spanish-American War, or through diplomatic means, such as dollar diplomacy.

Roosevelt's belief in the United States as a civilizing power was evident in his foreign policy initiatives, such as the establishment of the Panama Canal and his involvement in Latin America. He believed that the United States had a right to exert control over Cuba and Puerto Rico, and he deployed naval forces to ensure Panama's independence from Colombia in 1901 to acquire a U.S. Canal Zone. Roosevelt also pronounced the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, proclaiming U.S. police power in the Caribbean and Latin America. He saw the United States as a global power with interests around the world and wanted to ensure that the country had a say in world affairs.

Roosevelt's belief in civilizing power also extended to his domestic policies. As the United States became increasingly urban and industrial, he sought to address issues such as overcrowded cities, poor working conditions, and economic disparity through government regulation. He felt empowered by the people to ensure social justice and economic opportunity for all. Roosevelt's belief in individual achievement above all else led him to appoint Black Americans to prominent positions and defend those who faced discrimination. However, his record on race and civil rights was mixed, as he did little to preserve Black suffrage in the South.

The US's post-war expansionist ambitions

One of Roosevelt's primary goals was to exert US control over Cuba, even after it gained formal independence in 1902. The Platt Amendment, accepted by Cuba in 1901 after "strong pressure" from Washington, allowed the US to intervene in Cuban affairs to preserve order and maintain Cuban independence. The US also established a naval base at Guantanamo Bay and implemented a sanitation program aimed at eradicating yellow fever.

Another key aspect of Roosevelt's expansionist ambitions was the establishment of the Panama Canal. The US had long dreamed of constructing a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and during the Spanish-American War, American ships faced lengthy voyages to reach the Pacific. Roosevelt deployed naval forces to ensure Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903, acquiring a Canal Zone for the US. The construction of the canal was a massive engineering feat, requiring the labour of nearly 30,000 workers over ten years. It shortened the voyage from San Francisco to New York by more than 8,000 miles and solidified the US's dominance in Central America.

Roosevelt also sought to expand US influence in Latin America, proclaiming the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904. He declared that the US would serve as the policeman of the Western Hemisphere, intervening in any Latin American country facing economic or political instability. This policy, known as "dollar diplomacy", created resentment in the region, as it undermined the sovereignty of newly formed governments and aligned American economic interests with the region's chronic instability.

In addition to Cuba, the US also took control of several other territories during the Spanish-American War. The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, guaranteed the independence of Cuba and forced Spain to cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the US. Additionally, the US acquired the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. The US also annexed the independent state of Hawaii, which had previously been rejected by President Grover Cleveland but was approved by President McKinley following the war.

The Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary

The Monroe Doctrine was a defensive policy articulated by President James Monroe in his annual address to Congress in 1823. It warned European powers against colonizing or interfering in the Americas. Nearly a century later, President Theodore Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary, an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, in his 1904 and 1905 annual messages to Congress.

The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the United States could intervene in Latin American and Caribbean countries if they committed flagrant wrongdoings or demonstrated impotence that loosened the ties of civilized society. Roosevelt argued that the United States was justified in exercising "international police power" to maintain stability and order in the Western Hemisphere. This marked a shift from the defensive posture of the Monroe Doctrine to a more aggressive stance, reflecting Roosevelt's belief in the inevitable conflict between "civilized" and "barbarian" peoples, with the US as a "civilizing power".

The Roosevelt Corollary was influenced by Roosevelt's personal beliefs and his connections to foreign bondholders. It was also a consequence of the Venezuelan crisis of 1902-1903 and the increasing economic instability in Latin America, where rising debts to European and American bankers destabilized the region. The Corollary contributed to the transition of the United States into a great world power, promoting its influence and ideas abroad, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean.

The Roosevelt Corollary had significant consequences, including US intervention in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Panama, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. The US Marines became known as the "State Department Troops" due to their frequent involvement in protecting State Department interests in the Caribbean. The Corollary also led to the establishment of the Panama Canal, which further solidified US dominance in Central America.

While some historians view the Roosevelt Corollary as a positive transition to the progressive era of American politics, combining foreign policy goals with private economic activity, critics like Noam Chomsky argue that it was an explicit imperialist threat, building on the Monroe Doctrine. In 1930, President Herbert Hoover repudiated the Roosevelt Corollary in favour of the Good Neighbor policy, and Franklin D. Roosevelt officially renounced interventionism in 1934.

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Dollar diplomacy and US intervention in Latin America

Dollar diplomacy was a foreign policy created by US President William Howard Taft and his Secretary of State, Philander C. Knox, to ensure the financial stability of a region while protecting and expanding US commercial and financial interests there. Dollar diplomacy was a shift from Roosevelt's "big stick" policy, which relied on military intervention, to a policy that used economic power to coerce countries into agreements to benefit the United States.

In Latin America, dollar diplomacy was used to protect the Panama Canal and to establish control over Honduras by buying up its debt to British bankers. The US also urged its bankers to invest in Haiti and Honduras to prevent foreign intervention and maintain stability in the region. In his message to Congress on December 3, 1912, Taft summarised his policy as "substituting dollars for bullets".

Dollar diplomacy was also used in Asia, particularly in China, where the US attempted to limit the influence of other powers by using its banking power. However, these efforts were largely unsuccessful and created tensions with Japan and Russia.

Despite some successes, dollar diplomacy ultimately failed to prevent economic instability and revolution in countries like Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and China. The term is now used disparagingly to refer to the reckless manipulation of foreign affairs for protectionist financial purposes.

Overall, dollar diplomacy was a significant shift in US foreign policy, marking a transition from territorial to economic imperialism under the guise of humanitarian principles.

The Panama Canal and US military power

The Panama Canal, which opened for business in 1914, was one of the most significant factors in the emergence of the US as a global power. The canal was a massive engineering project, with nearly 30,000 workers labouring for ten years to build it. It was also a significant public health achievement, as American officials were able to counteract the Yellow Fever that had ravaged large numbers of canal workers.

The canal's construction was driven by the desire of US naval leaders to create a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America. During the Spanish-American War, American ships in the Pacific had to steam around the tip of South America, a two-month voyage, to join forces in the Atlantic. The canal thus served as a strategic military route, enabling the rapid deployment of ships and troops, and it also played a crucial role in international trade.

The Panama Canal was a key element of President Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy, which was characterised by his "big stick" ideology. This approach involved negotiating peacefully while also being prepared to use military strength if necessary. Roosevelt believed in the inevitability of conflict between "civilised" and "barbarian" peoples and saw the US as a civilising force with an obligation to bring order to the world. This belief led to his interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, which called for assertive American involvement in the affairs of other nations in the Western Hemisphere.

Roosevelt's corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed in 1904, asserted US police power in Latin America, particularly the Caribbean. The US actively intervened in Latin America, often using "dollar diplomacy" to exert control. In the case of Panama, Roosevelt deployed naval forces to ensure its independence from Colombia in 1903, leading to the acquisition of the Canal Zone. The construction and control of the Panama Canal exemplified Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy, as it demonstrated American military might and furthered its imperialist agenda.

The canal's construction and operation were not without controversy. While it was initially celebrated as a triumph of engineering, thousands of workers died during its construction, and there was tension between the US and Panama over sovereignty and treaty rights. The US exercised sovereign powers in the Canal Zone, and its operations were conducted exclusively by Americans, serving military and geopolitical interests. Panamanians resented the loss of sovereignty and felt they did not benefit proportionally from the canal compared to the US. These tensions led to riots and treaty negotiations in the 1950s and 1960s, and eventually, the transfer of authority from the US to Panama in the 1970s.

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