Simone Lawson
Political campaigning has evolved significantly over the years, with the emergence of various techniques and strategies to influence voters and shape election outcomes. The origins of modern campaigning can be traced back to the 19th and early 20th centuries, when political parties began to form and compete for voter support. Initially, presidential candidates did not actively campaign, relying instead on local supporters to organise events and speak on their behalf. However, with the advent of mass media and the internet, campaigning has become a sophisticated and data-driven endeavour, utilising tools such as social media, SEO, and data analysis to target voters and raise funds. Today, campaigning is a crucial aspect of the political process, with campaigns investing millions of dollars and employing extensive strategies to promote their candidates and influence public opinion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First modern campaign | William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878-1880 |
| First modern campaign candidates who travelled and made speeches | William Henry Harrison in 1840, Winfield Scott in 1852, Stephen A. Douglas in 1860, Horatio Seymour in 1868, Horace Greeley in 1872, James A. Garfield in 1880 |
| First modern campaign that laid the groundwork for modern campaigns | 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign |
| First televised debate between major party nominees | Nixon-Kennedy debate in 1960 |
| First successful humour magazine with political cartoons and caricatures | Puck, founded in 1871 |
| First primary election | New Hampshire presidential primary in 1920 |
| First federal election commission | Federal Election Commission, created in 1975 |
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What You'll Learn
The emergence of modern campaigning
The word "campaign" has had a small variety of meanings over the years, including "a strip or excursion into the country" and military terminology. However, the meaning most commonly associated with the word today is political. The British appear to have been the first to use the word in a political context, with the earliest citation coming from mid-18th-century England.
In the political sense, a campaign refers to a series of operations or efforts designed to influence the public to support a particular political candidate, ticket, or measure. Political campaigns are an essential part of modern democracy, especially in countries like the United States, which schedules more elections annually than any other country. Campaigns precede most elections and have become longer and more expensive over time, with modern American elections and campaigns being criticized for their length and cost.
The first modern political campaign is often described as William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878–1880, though there may be earlier examples from the 19th century. The 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign is also notable for laying the groundwork for modern campaigns. Before the 19th century, American presidential candidates rarely travelled or gave speeches to support their campaigns, leaving it to local supporters to organize events and speak on their behalf. These events included parades, rallies, and stump speeches by surrogates, followed by voter drives on Election Day. The emergence of partisan newspapers also played a significant role in early political campaigns, with publishers realizing the financial benefits of printing and selling campaign memorabilia.
As technology advanced, new tools became available to candidates, and the relationship between voters and candidates evolved. For example, the Nixon-Kennedy debate in 1960 was the first televised debate between major party nominees, marking the increasing influence of media on politics. Today, campaigns for the presidency can last up to two years and involve millions of dollars, with candidates utilizing a range of strategies to reach voters, such as canvassing, phone calls, and social media advertising.
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The role of lobby groups and political parties
Political campaigns are organised efforts to influence decision-making processes within specific groups. In democracies, these often refer to electoral campaigns, where representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. Campaigns are preceded by elections, and in recent years, they have become longer and more expensive, with modern American elections and campaigns sparking concerns about the role of money in politics and the need for campaign finance reform. The expense and length of campaigns have become one of the biggest issues in politics today, with some calling for closer monitoring of political party spending, and others advocating for overall spending caps.
Lobbying and campaign financing are two important and closely related forms of political activity that combine money and communication in ways that significantly impact democratic self-government. They are generally governed by different statutory regimes, with lobbying often subject to less restrictive controls than campaign financing. The relationship between the two is complex and evolving, with individuals, organisations, and interest groups deploying both lobbyists and campaign funds to advance their goals.
Interest groups, also known as lobby groups, develop strategies and specific tactics to influence policymakers and gain favourable policy outcomes. The nature of the group and its resources determine the type of tactics employed, with "insider" groups, typically older and more traditional business, labour, or professional groups, having greater access to policymakers and more extensive resources to pursue "insider tactics." These groups have a better ability to promote their goals and generally have more options available to them than "outsider" groups, which tend to be newer and lack key contacts and financial resources.
Political campaigns and the role of lobby groups and political parties are essential aspects of the democratic process, providing a dynamic link between citizens and their government.
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Campaign messaging and voter persuasion
The message of a campaign contains the ideas that a candidate wants to share with voters, with the aim of persuading those who agree with these ideas to support them. These messages are often conveyed through several talking points about policy issues, which are repeated frequently to create a lasting impression with voters. A simple and consistent message can be more effective, as seen in Barack Obama's successful 2008 campaign centred on the idea of "change". However, a message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow down a candidate with explaining details, as was the case with John McCain's original "Country First" message in the same 2008 election.
Voters can be persuaded through various techniques and channels, including traditional and new media, public events, written materials, and door-to-door canvassing. Repeated get-out-the-vote phone calls and additional phone calls can also increase the probability of a vote by 0.6-1.0 percentage points. In the past, parades, rallies, and stump speeches by surrogates were common, along with partisan newspapers that openly favoured certain parties. Today, campaigns are longer and more expensive, with the road to the presidency requiring extensive polling, fundraising, and primary elections.
The competition for choice spots on campaigns can be intense, and geography may play a role in landing a position. Individuals may find it easier to work with a hometown or home-state candidate, although this is not a guarantee. Campaign work can be demanding, with little formal mentoring, structured feedback, administrative support, or free time. However, it offers a unique perspective on the democratic process and can lead to government employment.
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Campaign costs and funding sources
Political campaigns can be costly, and their costs are covered by various funding sources. Campaigning has evolved since the 19th century when American presidential candidates rarely travelled or gave speeches to garner support. Now, campaigns employ various strategies and tools to reach voters, each with associated costs.
Campaign costs can vary depending on the type of campaign, the size of the campaign team, and the campaign activities undertaken. Some common expenses include advertising, travel, staff salaries, office space, and campaign materials such as signs, posters, and brochures. In the United States, for example, it can cost $31 to produce a vote through door-to-door campaigning, while sending out direct mailers can cost $91–$137 per vote.
Campaign funding sources can be public or private. Public funding for campaigns comes from taxpayer money and is often distributed through government programs. For instance, in the United States, taxpayers can choose to allocate $3 of their taxes to the Presidential Election Campaign Fund, which provides funds to eligible presidential candidates for their campaign expenses. Private funding, on the other hand, comes from individuals, corporations, unions, and other organizations. Private donors can contribute directly to a candidate's campaign or through Political Action Committees (PACs). PACs are organizations that raise and spend money to influence political campaigns, and they can be connected to corporations, unions, or other interest groups (known as connected PACs), or they can be financially independent (known as nonconnected PACs).
The rise of "super PACs" has also significantly impacted campaign funding. Super PACs, made possible by the Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission ruling in 2010, can receive unlimited contributions from corporations and unions for political purposes. This has led to concerns about the influence of large donors and the impact of "dark money," where the original donor remains unknown. As a result, critics argue that big money now dominates US political campaigns, drowning out the voices of ordinary Americans.
In conclusion, campaign costs can vary widely depending on the strategies employed, and funding sources can be a mix of public and private funds. While public funding options exist, private donors and PACs, including super PACs, have become increasingly influential in political campaigns, leading to concerns about the role of money in politics.
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Campaign work and volunteer opportunities
Volunteering on a political campaign is a powerful way to participate in democracy and effect change. Campaigns rely on volunteers to maximise their reach, engage with communities, and promote their candidates. Volunteers are the face of the campaign in local communities, and their direct interactions with voters can significantly influence election outcomes.
Volunteers can engage in a range of activities, including canvassing, which involves knocking on doors to garner support and increase voter turnout. This method has proven effective, as seen in the 2012 French presidential election, where door-to-door canvassing for Francois Hollande increased his vote share and accounted for a quarter of his victory margin.
Phone banking is another critical strategy, with volunteers making calls to persuade voters or request donations. Research shows that repeated get-out-the-vote phone calls have a cumulative effect, increasing the probability of a vote by 0.6-1.0 percentage points with each additional call. Volunteers can also utilise social media to organise and support the campaign online, reaching a wider audience and creating a lasting impression with consistent messaging.
Additionally, volunteers can assist with fundraising by hosting events to generate financial support for the campaign. They can also engage in voter registration drives, helping to register new voters on campuses and in specific neighbourhoods. These activities ensure greater participation in the democratic process and provide volunteers with valuable insights into campaign management and political networking opportunities.
Campaign volunteers should be aware of relevant regulations, such as those outlined by the Federal Election Commission (FEC), regarding volunteer activities and contributions. For example, volunteers can make incidental use of their employer's facilities for political volunteer work for up to one hour per week or four hours per month without reimbursement. Understanding these guidelines ensures that volunteers can effectively contribute to the campaign while complying with legal requirements.
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Frequently asked questions
The word 'campaign' has had several meanings over the years, including "a strip or excursion into the country (especially in summer)" and "the working life of a blast-furnace lining." The British were the first to use it in the political sense, with the earliest citation coming from mid-18th-century England. By the mid-1600s, it had become a military term, derived from the French 'campagne', meaning "open country" or "field."
The first modern political campaign is often considered to be William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878–80, although there may be earlier examples from the 19th century. The 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign is also notable for laying the groundwork for modern campaigns.
Political campaigns have become longer and more expensive, with increased spending on advertising, travel, and other campaign activities. The relationship between voters and candidates has also evolved, with candidates now utilising various tools and strategies to reach and influence voters.
