The Dark Art Of Secret Diplomacy In World War I

Secret diplomacy refers to foreign policy negotiations carried out by leaders without the knowledge or consent of their people. It is also known as 'quiet diplomacy'. Secret diplomacy was highly important in the power balance of 18th and 19th-century Europe, but it is rare today. One of the most famous examples of secret diplomacy in World War One was the Treaty of London, in which Italy was promised certain territorial concessions in exchange for joining the Triple Entente (Allied) side. After the October Revolution in Russia in 1917, Leon Trotsky published the secret treaties of the Tsarist government, causing international embarrassment and leading US President Woodrow Wilson to call for the abolition of secret diplomacy as a threat to peace.

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Secret treaties

Secret diplomacy refers to foreign policy negotiations conducted "behind closed doors" by political leaders without the knowledge or consent of the people they represent. This type of diplomacy was prevalent in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a compilation of secret treaties from 2004 listing 593 secret treaties negotiated by 110 countries and independent political entities since 1521.

After the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in November 1917, Leon Trotsky published the secret treaties of the Tsarist government, including the Treaty of London and the Constantinople Agreement. This caused international embarrassment and a strong reaction against secret diplomacy. US President Woodrow Wilson, who had already opposed secret diplomacy as a threat to peace, made the abolition of secret diplomacy the first point of his Fourteen Points, set forth in a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918. Wilson repeated his Fourteen Points at the Paris Peace Conference, where he proposed a commitment to "open covenants ... openly arrived at" and the elimination of "private international understandings of any kind". This position was codified in Article 18 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which mandated that all League of Nations member states register every treaty or international agreement with the League secretariat and that no treaty was binding unless registered.

Causes of WW1

Secret diplomacy, a form of diplomacy conducted behind closed doors without the knowledge or consent of the public, was one of the causes of World War I. It involves negotiations between national governments that are kept hidden from other countries or interested observers, such as the media. While it can be useful for resolving sensitive issues that require discretion and creating an environment conducive to constructive talks, it can also lead to decisions being made without the input of the public, generating suspicion and distrust between nations.

One of the key causes of World War I was the "elaborate alliance systems" among European powers, which were secured by a network of secret treaties, financial arrangements, and military understandings. These secret treaties played a significant role in shaping the conflict, with countries making commitments and alliances behind closed doors. For example, the Treaty of London, concluded on April 26, 1915, promised Italy certain territorial concessions in exchange for joining the war on the Triple Entente (Allied) side. Similarly, the Treaty of Bucharest, signed between Romania and the Triple Entente powers on August 17, 1916, pledged Romania territorial gains if they attacked Austria-Hungary and did not seek a separate peace.

The practice of secret diplomacy continued throughout the war, with the October Revolution of 1917 bringing the Bolsheviks to power in Russia. Leon Trotsky, upon taking power, published the secret treaties of the Tsarist government, including the Treaty of London and the Constantinople Agreement, causing international embarrassment and a strong reaction against secret diplomacy. US President Woodrow Wilson, who had already entered the war, opposed secret diplomacy and included its abolition as the first point of his Fourteen Points, a plan for peace that he presented to Congress on January 8, 1918.

Wilson's Fourteen Points, based on a draft by Walter Lippmann and his colleagues, sought to abolish secret diplomacy and replace it with "open covenants ... openly arrived at." This position was later codified in Article 18 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which required member states to register every treaty or international agreement with the League secretariat, making secrecy in diplomacy more challenging to maintain.

In conclusion, secret diplomacy, marked by negotiations hidden from public view, was a significant contributor to the complex web of alliances and treaties that characterised World War I. The consequences of these clandestine dealings had a profound impact on the course of history, shaping not only the war itself but also the subsequent efforts towards peace and transparency in international relations.

US opposition to secret diplomacy

Secret treaties were highly important in the balance of power diplomacy of 18th and 19th-century Europe. However, after the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in November 1917, Leon Trotsky published the secret treaties that the Tsarist government had made with the Entente powers, causing international embarrassment and a strong reaction against secret diplomacy.

US President Woodrow Wilson was a staunch opponent of secret diplomacy, considering it a threat to peace. He made the abolition of secret diplomacy the first point of his Fourteen Points, set forth in a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918, after the US had entered World War I. Wilson dissociated the United States from the Allies' earlier secret commitments and sought to end secret diplomacy once the war was won. The Fourteen Points were based on a draft paper prepared by Walter Lippmann and his colleagues, which analysed the secret treaties and developed a position that conceded to the Allies while removing the negative elements.

Wilson's Fourteen Points included a call for "open covenants, openly arrived at", emphasising the need for diplomacy to be conducted in the public view. This position was later codified in Article 18 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which mandated that all member states register every treaty or international agreement with the League secretariat, and that no treaty was binding unless registered. Wilson's insistence on the inclusion of the League of Nations in the Treaty of Versailles forced him to compromise with Allied leaders on other points.

Wilson's stance on secret diplomacy was influenced by his mistrust of Allied war aims, which he viewed with almost as much suspicion as those of Germany and Austria-Hungary. He wanted to use peace negotiations to advance democracy and make governments more accountable to their people. He also sought to win a place at the peace table and secure the US's position as a new world power. Wilson's diplomacy sowed the seeds for the creation of the United Nations some 25 years later.

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Abolition of secret diplomacy

Secret diplomacy refers to foreign policy negotiations carried out by leaders such as kings, presidents, and other rulers without the knowledge or consent of their people. It is also known as "quiet diplomacy". Secret diplomacy was prevalent in the 18th and 19th centuries, with European powers engaging in "elaborate alliance systems", each secured by a network of secret treaties, financial arrangements, and military agreements. These secret alliances are considered one of the causes of World War I.

During World War I, leaders from Germany, Britain, and the United States secretly struggled for five months, from August 1916 to January 1917, to end the war, away from public view. After the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in November 1917, Leon Trotsky published the secret treaties of the Tsarist government, including the Treaty of London and the Constantinople Agreement. This act caused international embarrassment and sparked a strong reaction against secret diplomacy.

US President Woodrow Wilson was a staunch opponent of secret diplomacy, deeming it a threat to peace. He made the abolition of secret diplomacy the first point of his Fourteen Points, a plan for peace presented to Congress on January 8, 1918, after the US had entered World War I. Wilson's Fourteen Points included a commitment to "open covenants, openly arrived at" and the elimination of "private international understandings of any kind". He aimed to ensure that diplomacy was conducted frankly and in full public view.

The Wilsonian position was formalized in Article 18 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which required all member states to register every treaty or international agreement with the League secretariat. This article mandated that no treaty would be binding unless properly registered, thereby abolishing secret diplomacy among the League of Nations members.

Public opinion on open diplomacy

During the prelude to World War I, public opinion played a significant role in shaping the diplomatic landscape. The era witnessed a decline in the influence of elite groups, with diplomats lamenting the impact of expanded democracy, press scrutiny, and public attention on diplomatic processes. The rise of totalitarian regimes with strong ideologies further complicated diplomacy, as these regimes often disregarded established diplomatic norms and were indifferent to negotiation and compromise.

As the war approached, publics across Europe were mobilized by memories of past glory or defeat, as well as a sense of rectifying past and present injustices. Socialists like Jean Jaures in France and peace movements within governments, particularly in Britain, advocated for peace and commanded large crowds. However, arguments for strong and forceful action ultimately prevailed, and the rush to war could not be averted.

In the United States, public opinion following World War I shifted towards isolationism due to the tragic losses incurred during the conflict and the economic depression of the 1930s. Suspicions of wartime profiteering by bankers and arms manufacturers also influenced public sentiment, leading to a desire for neutrality and non-entanglement in international politics.

Open diplomacy, as opposed to the secrecy associated with traditional diplomacy before World War I, gained traction due to advancements in communication media. It involves informal, nongovernmental interactions between private citizens or groups, also known as non-state actors. Open diplomacy aims to assist official actors in conflict resolution by incorporating perspectives from public opinion and exploring potential alternatives without requiring substantive agreement.

Open diplomacy has been advocated by authors such as Isabelle Vladoiu, who proposes a coalition of global networks, including civil society, legislators, and governments, to address pressing global issues. This approach promotes inclusivity, collaboration, and the attainment of mutual goals through the backup support provided by these interconnected networks.

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