Eleanor Finch
The world of diplomacy is complex and nuanced, with persuasion at its core. It involves maintaining peace, navigating conflicts, and fostering cooperation among nations. At the same time, espionage, or spy diplomacy, is a secretive aspect of international relations, where governments seek to gather intelligence and information to make informed decisions. The line between diplomacy and espionage can be blurry, with diplomats and spies coexisting within embassies and foreign missions. While diplomats focus on negotiation and representation, spies engage in covert intelligence-gathering, sometimes blurring ethical boundaries. This intricate interplay between diplomacy and espionage shapes global affairs, with both professions influencing and, at times, challenging each other.
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What You'll Learn
The blurred line between diplomacy and espionage
The relationship between diplomacy and espionage has long been a blurry one. While diplomats are the public face of the government, they operate in the grey area between the private realm of governmental reflection and the public realm of policy promotion. Their ambiguous position means that they may sometimes engage in activities that resemble espionage.
Diplomats are expected to gather information and intelligence, but they are generally expected to do so through legal means and by sticking to the code set out in the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. This convention sought to impose rules on the business of diplomacy and espionage, stating that the official and private correspondence of diplomats is to be kept confidential. However, the line between diplomacy and espionage is not always clear-cut, and there are grey areas where the activities of diplomats may overlap with those of spies. For example, while consulates routinely take fingerprints and photographs when issuing visas, the covert collection of DNA without an individual's consent is considered to cross the line into espionage. Similarly, meeting members of the opposition in a foreign country may be considered normal and even expected in a democracy, but it can be deemed espionage by authoritarian, one-party host governments.
The blurring of lines between diplomacy and espionage is not a new phenomenon, and it has been observed that the United States, in particular, has a history of intertwining espionage with diplomacy. During the Eisenhower administration, for instance, the Dulles brothers simultaneously occupied the posts of Secretary of State and CIA Director, respectively, and their influence on global affairs was significant. In more recent times, the Trump administration has been criticised for seemingly prioritising military action and aggressive diplomacy over traditional diplomacy, with the appointment of former CIA Director Mike Pompeo as Secretary of State raising eyebrows.
While the line between diplomacy and espionage may be blurry, former practitioners of both professions insist that a distinction exists and that all concerned know when it has been crossed. Approaching foreign nationals and asking them to work for a foreign government, for instance, is generally considered to fall within the realm of espionage. True espionage involves surreptitiously seeking passwords, email and phone account details, and other sensitive information, which diplomats agree is not consistent with their role as it is meant to be carried out in the open. When diplomats engage in spying, they risk soiling their image and hindering their principal task.
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The role of diplomats in intelligence gathering
Intelligence gathering is a crucial practice for states, and diplomats play a key role in this process. While the primary function of diplomats is to represent, negotiate, and report, they are also involved in intelligence gathering and providing intelligence assessments. This is especially true in embassies, where diplomats share their posts with non-diplomatic personnel, such as military attachés, whose primary task is intelligence collection. Embassy-based diplomats from many countries collect intelligence and provide assessments, which can be influential in shaping policy. For example, in 1946, diplomat George Kennan sent the famous "long telegram" from the American embassy in Moscow, which laid the basis for the US Cold War policy of "containment" of the USSR.
Diplomats can also engage in covert intelligence activities, which can include infiltration, developing cover identities, and monitoring the behaviours of individuals or groups to gather information. This type of intelligence gathering raises legal questions, especially for diplomats who are protected by diplomatic immunity. The case of Raymond Allen Davis, a CIA contractor who killed two men in Pakistan and claimed diplomatic immunity due to his CIA employment, highlighted the scope of immunities given to consular and diplomatic staff, and the role of diplomats working as undercover intelligence agents.
The use of intelligence in diplomacy is not new, and governments have declassified and used intelligence data to influence policy decisions and shape public opinion. For instance, in October 1962, the United States presented declassified intelligence to the UN Security Council exposing the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba. More recently, during the Russia-Ukraine war, intelligence was disclosed to prevent the conflict and pressure allied countries into making decisions against Russia.
Intelligence gathering by diplomats can serve to advance a state's interests and influence international relations. Intelligence diplomacy can be a useful tool to enhance a state's position relative to its adversaries, fact-check and counter their narratives, and build strong coalitions. However, as seen in the case of the Iraq War, where declassified intelligence about weapons of mass destruction turned out to be inaccurate, the misuse of intelligence can have high costs and damage reputations. Therefore, it is important to consider the limitations and potential consequences of intelligence gathering and use it responsibly and ethically.
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The importance of privacy in diplomacy
Diplomacy is a complex and intricate game of weighing benefits and costs, requiring foresight and detail. It is a creative process that demands privacy to function effectively. The importance of privacy in diplomacy cannot be overstated, as it is essential for maintaining trust, facilitating cooperation, and resolving disputes on the international stage.
Diplomats are the public voice of their governments, occupying an inherently ambiguous position at the boundary between the private realm of governmental reflection and the public realm of policy promotion. They are responsible for cultivating relationships and maintaining credibility with local interlocutors, which is crucial for successful persuasion and furthering the causes they represent. However, when diplomats engage in spying, they risk soiling their image and undermining their principal task.
The division of labour between diplomats and spies is crucial. Spies masquerading as diplomats, as seen in the case of Snowden, can damage the trust and credibility that diplomats strive to build. True diplomats should let others do the spying and maintain their skilled silence, preserving the privacy of their government's reflections and strategy. This separation is essential for the functioning of the state, as it allows diplomats to operate with integrity while spies gather intelligence through covert means.
The blurring of lines between diplomacy and spying has been a subject of debate, with WikiLeaks revelations in 2010 highlighting the mixing of these roles. While diplomats are expected to gather information, the more intrusive personal details they are now being asked to collect blur the boundaries of their profession. This includes requests for information on foreign officials' frequent flyer accounts, credit card numbers, and telecommunications networks supporting foreign militaries and intelligence agencies. Such requests can lead to data mining and surveillance operations, impacting the privacy and security of individuals and countries alike.
In conclusion, privacy in diplomacy is of paramount importance. It enables diplomats to build trust, maintain credibility, and effectively represent their governments. Preserving the separation between diplomats and spies is crucial for the integrity of international relations and the resolution of global challenges. By respecting privacy in diplomacy, nations can foster cooperation, resolve disputes, and navigate an increasingly complex world.
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The legality of resident spies
The world of diplomacy is a complex one, and the role of spies in this world is even more intricate. While diplomacy aims to foster cooperation and resolve disputes on the international stage, espionage can be seen as a necessary evil to gain knowledge and make informed decisions. The legality of resident spies is a nuanced topic, and it differs depending on whether the spy operates under official or non-official cover.
In the context of Soviet Union nomenclature, there are two types of resident spies: "legal'nye rezidenty" (legal resident spies) and "nelegal'nye rezidenty" (illegal resident spies). Legal resident spies operate in a foreign country under official cover, typically from their country's embassy. They are official members of the consular staff and hold diplomatic positions such as commercial, cultural, or military attachés. One of the main advantages of being a legal resident spy is diplomatic immunity from prosecution. They cannot be arrested by the host country if suspected of espionage but can be expelled and required to return home as a persona non grata. However, their diplomatic status also makes them known foreigners, and their official biography may provide clues to their intelligence activities.
On the other hand, illegal resident spies operate under non-official cover. They do not have diplomatic immunity and can be prosecuted if arrested. Their advantage lies in being unknown as foreigners, blending in with the host country's citizens. Illegal resident spies face challenges in accessing secure communications and facilities that legal resident spies take for granted. Additionally, their payment methods can be complex, sometimes requiring ruses to disguise their true nature.
The line between diplomacy and espionage is often blurry. Some diplomats may engage in spying, but it can damage their credibility and hinder their primary task of persuasion in diplomatic relations. Spies masquerading as diplomats, as in the case of Snowden, are considered inadmissible by many. However, it is common for intelligence officers to be listed as diplomats, and they are responsible for managing agents who conduct the actual spying.
The legality and morality of espionage are subjects of ongoing debate. International law differentiates between spying during wartime and peacetime, focusing on false pretenses and violations of state sovereignty, respectively. While some view spying as inherently immoral, others justify it as a necessary evil to protect national security. The dirty-hands approach and contractarian perspectives offer contrasting normative frameworks for understanding the complex world of spy diplomacy.
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The impact of spying on international relations
Spying has been referred to as the "world's second oldest profession", with mentions of spies found in the Bible, ancient Greece, and ancient China. Espionage has evolved and persisted throughout history, with modern times seeing over a hundred global intelligence agencies engaging in related activities. While espionage is often associated with wartime, the distinction between peacetime and wartime is becoming blurred, and espionage during peacetime is not clearly prohibited or regulated by international law.
The advancement of technology has introduced new dimensions to spying, with cyber spying becoming a fact of life in international relations. Foreign intelligence operations, such as the Russian interference in the 2016 and 2020 American elections, pose a constant threat to national security. These operations aim to covertly influence policy outcomes while maintaining plausible deniability. While the introduction of a global regulatory body for cyber espionage has been suggested, strategic interests and national security concerns create barriers to reaching international regulations.
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Frequently asked questions
Spy diplomacy refers to the blurring of the lines between the roles of diplomats and spies. It involves diplomats engaging in espionage activities, such as gathering intelligence or seeking passwords and personal information about foreign officials.
Spy diplomacy can provide valuable insights and intelligence that may be useful for a country's national security and foreign policy decision-making. It can also help to maintain a country's strategic advantage over others.
Spy diplomacy can damage the credibility and image of diplomats, as it may be seen as a breach of trust and an abuse of their diplomatic status. It can also lead to negative consequences for the diplomats themselves, such as expulsion or legal repercussions if they are caught engaging in espionage activities.
Spy diplomacy raises ethical concerns about the invasion of privacy and the potential abuse of power. It can also undermine the fundamental principles of diplomacy, which emphasize persuasion, negotiation, and the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
The exposure of spy diplomacy can lead to significant diplomatic fallout, including the expulsion of diplomats, the deterioration of relations between countries, and the erosion of trust in diplomatic institutions. It can also trigger counter-measures and deceit, as countries attempt to protect their interests and intelligence capabilities.
