Classical Diplomacy: Understanding Traditional Diplomatic Practices

Classical diplomacy refers to the diplomatic techniques and methods employed by ancient civilisations to uphold their relationships with other states or city-states. Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy, but the terms are not synonymous. Diplomacy is the chief instrument of foreign policy, which is set by political leaders, though diplomats may advise them. Ancient diplomacy frequently comprised conversations between kings, ambassadors, or other envoys from other kingdoms or empires in an effort to forge alliances, resolve conflicts, or establish trade agreements. The earliest known examples of diplomacy predate recorded history, with early societies exhibiting some attributes of states, and the first international law arising from intertribal relations.

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The role of writing

The act of writing is deeply intertwined with the history of diplomacy. Writing, as a technology, emerged in the 4th millennium BC when the Sumerians invented it. Clay tablets containing the first texts written in cuneiform writing were discovered as archaeological evidence. Writing has been a key method for conveying knowledge, preserving human experiences, and developing diplomacy. It has shaped our way of life and is integral to the interplay between diplomacy and technology.

In ancient times, writing was used to create and maintain diplomatic relationships with other states or city-states. The exchange of letters was a common method of diplomatic communication. For instance, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, signed between the Muslim community in Medina and the Meccan tribe of Quraysh in 628 AD, is an early example of Islamic diplomacy. The correspondence between the Muslim Caliph Umar and the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, marked by mutual respect, eventually led to a fair treaty between the two empires.

In the ancient world, diplomatic marriages were also used to forge alliances and negotiate peace. For example, the Sumerian king Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab married the daughter of the king of Kish, forming a powerful alliance between their city-states. Similarly, pharaohs in ancient Egypt often used diplomatic marriages to amplify their political power. Ramses II, married many foreign princesses to form alliances with other kingdoms.

Writing remains a fundamental tool in contemporary diplomacy, with the preparation of treaties, agreements, and other solemn documents playing a central role in international relations.

Ancient civilisations and their techniques

Ancient civilisations employed various diplomatic techniques and methods to uphold their relationships with other states or city-states. Diplomacy in ancient times often involved conversations between kings, ambassadors, or other envoys from different kingdoms or empires, with the aim of forging alliances, resolving conflicts, or establishing trade agreements. The exchange of gifts, letters, or emissaries was also a common practice in ancient diplomacy.

One notable example of ancient diplomacy is the Code of Hammurabi, issued by Hammurabi, which served as the first legal code. While the code included harsh punishments, it also demonstrated Hammurabi's understanding of the concept of "skin in the game". He believed in holding individuals accountable for their actions, as seen in his rule that builders who constructed a building that collapsed and caused fatalities should also be put to death. Hammurabi also communicated legal rules and standards in a simple and understandable language, which was a significant diplomatic technique.

Another example of ancient diplomacy is Amarna diplomacy, named after the Egyptian city of Tel-el Amarna, where archaeologists discovered the first diplomatic archive, the Amarna Letters. This archive, written on clay tablets, consisted primarily of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and neighbouring kingdoms. Amarna diplomacy is considered one of the most developed diplomatic systems among ancient civilisations, incorporating techniques such as sending representatives, negotiating, and granting immunities.

Ancient Egyptian diplomacy also played a significant role in the relationship between the Hittites and Egyptians. Following the Battle of Kadesh, which resulted in a draw, Ramses II of Egypt and Hattusili III of the Hittites realised that neither side could gain a substantial advantage. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Kadesh, the first peace treaty, marking the end of hostilities between the two nations. The two civilisations then engaged in a mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and experiences, with the Hittites teaching the Egyptians how to make superior weapons and tools, while the Egyptians shared their expertise in agriculture.

In ancient China, diplomacy evolved with the emergence of leagues, missions, and a sophisticated system of polite dialogue between feuding kingdoms. This system emphasised ethical behaviour in inter-state relations and included the use of resident envoys who served as hostages to guarantee the good behaviour of their senders. The advice of Zhuangzi to 'diplomats' in the 3rd century BC captures the essence of ancient Chinese diplomacy.

Overall, ancient civilisations laid the foundation for contemporary diplomatic activities, and their techniques continue to offer valuable insights for understanding and shaping modern diplomacy.

The use of envoys

The practice of sending envoys has a long history and can be traced back to ancient civilisations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Inca Empire in South America. In ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ramses II, envoys played a crucial role in negotiating the first peace treaty, the Treaty of Kadesh, between Egypt and the Hittites. Similarly, in the Islamic tradition, envoys were sent to negotiate treaties, convey messages, and establish trade agreements. For instance, the correspondence between the Muslim Caliph Umar and the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius led to a fair and just treaty between the two empires.

The role of envoys in classical diplomacy has evolved over time, adapting to the changing political, economic, and cultural landscapes of international relations. Today, envoys, or diplomats, continue to play a crucial role in representing and negotiating on behalf of their respective states or governments, upholding the principle of peaceful dialogue and negotiation as the primary tool of diplomacy.

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Religious influence

Religion has had a profound influence on the development of classical diplomacy. In ancient times, religious figures often served as diplomats or messengers, owing to their perceived sacredness and inviolability. For instance, in late medieval Europe, the first diplomats were believed to be angels or messengers from heaven. Women, too, were frequently chosen as envoys due to their "mysterious sanctity" and perceived "sexual wiles".

In the Islamic world, the tradition of diplomacy dates back to the time of the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, signed between the Muslim community in Medina and the Meccan tribe of Quraysh in 628 AD, stands as one of the earliest examples of Islamic diplomacy. Sufi scholars and leaders also played a mediating role in conflicts, as evidenced by their correspondence with other empires, which was marked by mutual respect and eventually led to fair treaties.

The Catholic Church, during the Middle Ages, acted as a mediator in conflicts between European states, with Popes using their religious authority to resolve disputes and negotiate treaties and alliances. The Peace of God movement, initiated by the Catholic Church in the 11th century, aimed to protect non-combatants from the brutality of war and reduce the destruction and violence caused by warfare. The Church declared that any harm inflicted upon non-combatants would result in excommunication, placing them under the Church's protection. This religious influence in diplomacy extended into the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, with Pope Gregory VII excommunicating the German king Henry IV in 1076, significantly weakening the king's power.

Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Greeks also employed religious elements in their diplomatic practices. For example, the exchange of envoys and the use of sacred emblems were common in Egyptian diplomacy, while the Megarian decree, an economic sanction tool, was used in ancient Greece to pressure and isolate other city-states. In Mesopotamia, diplomatic marriages were a strategy to establish alliances and negotiate peace, with the Sumerian king Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab marrying the daughter of the king of Kish to form a powerful alliance.

The evolution of modern diplomacy

One of the earliest known examples of ancient diplomacy is the Code of Hammurabi, issued by Hammurabi, which laid down legal rules and standards in a simple and understandable language. The Amarna Letters, discovered in the Egyptian city of Tel-el Amarna, are another significant example, showcasing advanced diplomatic techniques, including sending representatives, negotiating, and granting immunities.

During the medieval period, diplomacy in Europe was influenced by the Catholic Church, with Popes acting as mediators in conflicts between states and promoting initiatives like the Peace of God movement to protect non-combatants during wars. In Islamic history, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in the 7th century and the correspondence between Muslim Caliph Umar and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius are notable instances of early diplomacy.

The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods brought significant changes to diplomacy. The establishment of permanent diplomatic missions, the emergence of diplomatic corps and immunity, and the development of protocols for diplomatic communications added formality and structure to diplomatic interactions.

Over time, diplomacy has evolved into a vital instrument of foreign policy, with diplomats advising political leaders on international relations. Diplomacy serves as a peaceful alternative to force, utilising dialogue, negotiation, and other measures to influence the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments without resorting to violence. It is often conducted confidentially, with the progress and outcomes made public in contemporary international relations.

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