Omar Bennett
The African experience in the USA is a complex topic that covers centuries of history, from the first enslaved Africans arriving in the country in the 1500s to the present day. African Americans, the descendants of these enslaved people, have faced discrimination, segregation, and oppression throughout US history, with their rights severely limited and their contributions to American society often overlooked. While there has been progress, with the gradual abolition of slavery and the civil rights movement, issues of discrimination and police brutality remain prevalent. The African American experience has been shaped by a struggle for freedom, equality, and justice, with African culture influencing music, literature, art, theatre, dance, and language in the USA.
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What You'll Learn
The slave trade and its legacy
During the 17th and 18th centuries, slavery was legal in all 13 colonies, and it was employed by prominent citizens, including the founders of the new United States. The importation of captives for enslavement was even provided for in the US Constitution, and it continued to take place on a large scale despite being outlawed in 1808. The slave system was integral to the new nation's financial independence, and the enslaved population in the US nearly tripled in the 50 years following the ban on the international slave trade. This was due to the flourishing domestic slave trade, which continued into the 1860s and displaced approximately 1.2 million people, the majority of whom were born in America. The destruction of families and the fear of being "sold down the river" to places with grim reputations, such as the Louisiana sugar plantations, made the domestic slave trade particularly terrifying.
Despite the pervasive nature of slavery, there was always a population of African Americans living in freedom. Some had escaped, some had been freed by their former enslavers, some had bought their freedom, and others lived in territories or states that had abolished slavery. By 1860, there were 500,000 free African Americans in the US, many of whom lived in urban areas and worked in trades and crafts such as construction, metalworking, and retail. However, even in free states, they had few legal protections and were at constant risk of being kidnapped and returned to slavery.
The slaves who remained in bondage suffered from inhumane living and working conditions, leading to various fatal maladies. Infant and child mortality rates were twice as high among enslaved children compared to Southern White children, with half of all enslaved infants dying in their first year of life. Chronic undernourishment was a significant issue, with pregnant women still being expected to pick three-quarters or more of the amount picked by other women. The average birth weight of enslaved infants was less than 5.5 pounds, considered severely underweight by modern standards.
The African culture brought by the enslaved people to America influenced various aspects of everyday life, including forms of worship, family organisation, music, food, and language. For example, in South Carolina and Florida, several West African languages combined to form a new dialect called Gullah or Geechee, which still survives in some rural areas today. Additionally, African expertise in agriculture and navigation shaped the industry and agriculture of the continent. The skills and resilience of enslaved Africans and their descendants contributed to the development of the rice fields of South Carolina and Louisiana, as well as the opening of rivers and canals in the Northwest frontier to boat traffic.
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African influence on American culture
The African influence on American culture is a topic that has been explored by historians, anthropologists, and sociologists. The African diaspora, which began with the forced migration of Africans to America during the transatlantic slave trade, has had a significant impact on the cultural landscape of the United States.
Language
African languages and dialects influenced the development of a new dialect known as Gullah or Geechee, which is still partially spoken in rural areas of South Carolina and Florida today. This dialect combines several West African languages and can be heard in traditional songs and music.
Religion and Spirituality
Africans brought their spiritual and religious traditions to the United States, including Christianity, Islam, and traditional African religions. These beliefs influenced the Christianity of Black Americans and created a unique blend of religious practices.
Music and Performing Arts
African musical scales and rhythms influenced American music, including Christian hymns, European marches, and the blues. The banjo evolved from an African stringed instrument. Additionally, African Americans played a significant role in the development of Vaudeville and blues music.
Food and Agriculture
Africans introduced new crops and agricultural practices to the United States, particularly in South Carolina and Louisiana. They had expertise in large-scale rice and indigo cultivation, which were unknown to European Americans. African foodways also influenced the diets of Americans, with certain foods becoming associated with African diaspora communities, such as the Christmas traditions of John Canoe or "Jonkanoo."
Social and Political Movements
The struggle for civil rights and racial equality has been a significant aspect of African American history. Notable figures like Marcus Garvey preached black pride and racial separation, while others, like the writers and artists of the Harlem Renaissance, sought to explore their cultural identity as both blacks and Americans. The celebration of Black History Month and the emergence of movements like the Nation of Islam also reflect the ongoing influence of African Americans in shaping American society and culture.
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African Americans in the military
African Americans have served in the military during every war fought by or within the United States, including the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and recent conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
During the Revolutionary War, African Americans fought on both sides of the conflict, with some serving as slaves or freemen in the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, and as privateers, wagoneers, servants, officers, and spies. Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued an emancipation proclamation in 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. This prompted the Continental Army to lift the ban on black enlistment in 1776, and several all-black units were formed.
In the early 19th century, African Americans continued to serve in the military, often in servitude positions under officers. During the War of 1812, Commodore Barney famously assured President James Madison that his "negroes [...] don't know how to run; they will die by their guns first." This proved true, as African Americans fought bravely and gained a growing presence in the military during this period.
Despite their long history of military service, African Americans have faced significant challenges and discrimination within the armed forces. After the Revolutionary War, a total ban on African Americans enlisting in the military was enacted, and some slave-owning officers used their own slaves for servitude positions. While this ban was eventually lifted, African Americans continued to face systemic racism and underrepresentation, particularly in senior and leadership positions.
During World War I, the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters," was an all-African American unit that saw extensive combat and included Pvt. Henry Johnson, who was awarded the French Croix du Guerre for his exceptional bravery. In World War II, Oleta Crain was one of only three Black women out of 300 who entered officer training in the Women's Army Corps (WAC) and the Air Force. She remained the only female Black officer retained by the military after the war and advocated for civil rights within the military, successfully gaining the respect of her superiors.
African Americans have a proud history of serving in the U.S. military, demonstrating their courage, dedication, and patriotism. However, they have also faced unique challenges and barriers to equal representation and advancement, particularly in senior military ranks.
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Civil rights and racial tensions
The African-American experience in the USA has been defined by a long history of racial tensions and the struggle for civil rights. This struggle has its roots in the enslavement of Africans and the creation of a racialised caste system in the country. Chattel slavery, which began in the 17th century, stripped Africans of their identities, families, and legal rights, subjecting them to violent economic exploitation, physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, and lynchings.
Even after the abolition of slavery, African Americans continued to face racial discrimination and violence. The Reconstruction Acts, which established voting rights for African-American men, were passed following the Civil War. However, within a decade, Congress abandoned its promise to assist the millions of formerly enslaved Black people, and violent racial control was enforced by white Southerners. The Supreme Court also blocked efforts to protect this group, enabling the continuation of racial discrimination and violence.
The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of organisations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in response to growing racial violence and riots in Springfield, Illinois. The NAACP used the federal courts to challenge disenfranchisement and residential segregation, and played a crucial role in significant civil rights cases, including Brown v. Board of Education. This case, decided in 1954, ruled that separate schools were inherently unequal, marking a shift towards the demise of legislation that bound African Americans to second-class citizenship.
Despite these advancements, racial tensions and civil rights struggles persisted. The post-war era saw increased resistance to racial segregation and discrimination, with civil disobedience, nonviolent resistance, marches, protests, boycotts, and rallies receiving national attention. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 further enshrined equal rights in law, addressing equal access to public accommodations, justice, employment, education, and housing opportunities.
However, racial profiling and police brutality against African Americans continued to be a source of tension, as exemplified by the 1992 beating of Rodney King by LAPD officers, which sparked widespread outrage in the African-American community. The legacy of structural racism and its impact on the mental health of African Americans is also a significant aspect of the African-American experience, with economic disadvantages and segregation identified as stressors affecting mental health.
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African immigration to the USA
The story of African immigration to the United States is not primarily a story of immigration. Most Africans who arrived in North America did so against their will, as part of the slave trade. During the 17th and 18th centuries, slavery was legal in all 13 colonies and was a key driver of the new nation's financial independence. The importation of captives for enslavement was provided for in the US Constitution and continued even after it was outlawed in 1808. On the eve of the Civil War, there were nearly 4 million enslaved people in the United States.
Africans brought with them the skills and trades of their homeland, which shaped the industry and agriculture of the continent. West Africans with experience navigating waterways helped open the rivers and canals of the Northwest frontier to boat traffic, and African cattle drivers applied their skills to ox teams and livestock. Large-scale rice and indigo cultivation, unknown to European Americans, were introduced by Africans, and their expertise in these areas led to the rice fields of South Carolina and Louisiana.
African culture also influenced everyday life in African-American communities, with forms of worship, family organisation, music, food, and language bearing the signs of African traditional culture. In areas like South Carolina and Florida, several West African languages were melded over the years to form a new dialect, known as Gullah or Geechee, which still survives in some rural areas today.
While slavery was pervasive, there was always a population of free African Americans, which grew steadily over time. In 1790, there were 60,000 free African Americans in the US, a number that grew to 500,000 by 1860. Despite facing legal and societal challenges, free African Americans worked in various trades and crafts, including construction, metalworking, and retail trade, and made significant contributions to the economy and infrastructure.
In the latter part of the 20th century, an influx of African immigrants, often referred to as the "fourth great migration," began, driven by factors such as seeking education and escaping poverty. This trend has continued, and in 2019, the number of Black immigrants living in the United States reached 4.6 million, contributing significantly to the growth and diversity of the overall Black population. New York City has the largest Black immigrant population of any metropolitan area, with about 1.1 million in 2019.
African immigration has been facilitated by programs like the Diversity Visa Program, created by the Immigration Act of 1990, which allows individuals from countries with low rates of immigration to the US to obtain lawful permanent resident status. In recent years, there has been an increase in African immigrants seeking permanent residence, leading to a brain drain on the economies of their home countries.
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Frequently asked questions
The first enslaved Africans arrived in the US in the British colony of Virginia 401 years ago. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, slavery was the law in all 13 colonies, and the slave system was one of the principal engines of the new nation's financial independence. Enslaved Africans were sold at auction to owners, who wanted them primarily as plantation workers. Despite this, some Africans gained their freedom, acquired property, and gained access to American society.
African culture has influenced American music, theater, and dance. African rhythms found their way into Christian hymns and European marches, and the banjo evolved from an African stringed instrument. African Americans have also influenced American language, worship, family organization, music, food, and language.
African Americans faced many challenges in the 20th century, compounded with experiences of class, gender, and immigration. They were the first to be laid off from jobs and had an unemployment rate two to three times that of whites. They also often received less aid than whites in public assistance programs. In the 1920s, Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City, drew black migrants from the South, and Black commerce and culture thrived. This gathering of black artists and philosophers was called the Harlem Renaissance.
Africans in the US have experienced racism, police brutality, and discrimination in the workplace. There has also been tension between Africans and Black Americans. Despite these issues, Black Americans make significant contributions to every segment of American society, including business, arts and entertainment, science, literature, and politics and law.
