Malcolm Rivera
The American Civil War was fought between the Union, comprising 23 free states in the North, and the Confederacy, made up of 11 slave states in the South. The war was the culmination of a long-standing struggle between advocates and opponents of slavery, dating back to the framing of the US Constitution in 1787. The election of Abraham Lincoln, an anti-slavery Republican, as president in 1860, was the immediate trigger for the conflict, as it prompted the secession of Southern states. The Southern states' economy was heavily dependent on slavery, and they feared that Lincoln's victory would lead to the outlawing of slavery in the territories that had not yet become states. The conflict was also shaped by constitutional differences, particularly the question of whether the United States was a dissolvable confederation of sovereign states or an indivisible nation with a sovereign national government.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | 1861-1865 |
| Cause | Uncompromising differences between free and slave states |
| over the power of the government to prohibit slavery | |
| in territories not yet states | |
| Election | Abraham Lincoln elected in 1860 |
| on a platform against slavery | |
| Secession | 11 Southern states seceded |
| and formed the Confederate States of America | |
| Trigger | Confederate attack on Fort Sumter |
| Outcome | Northern victory |
| End of slavery | |
| Preservation of the Union |
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What You'll Learn
The election of Abraham Lincoln
The Republican National Convention met in mid-May 1860 after the Democrats had been forced to adjourn their convention in Charleston. The Democrats were in disarray, and the Republicans felt confident, with a sweep of the Northern states possible. Lincoln, from Illinois, was less well-known and not considered a strong candidate against the front-runner, William H. Seward from New York. However, as the convention progressed, it was revealed that the leading candidates had each alienated factions of the Republican Party. This dynamic played in Lincoln's favour, and he secured the nomination.
Lincoln's platform promised to keep slavery out of the new territories that had been annexed from Mexico, a stance that appealed to Northern voters. The dominant Democratic Party, on the other hand, was divided over the issue of slavery extension. Northern Democrats believed that the residents of the territories should decide, while Southern Democrats vehemently advocated for slavery extension regardless of the residents' desires. This division resulted in the Democratic Party putting forward two separate presidential candidates: Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas, nominated by the Northern Democrats, and Vice President John Breckinridge of Kentucky, nominated by the Southern Democrats.
Lincoln's victory in the 1860 election was achieved through an electoral majority composed solely of Northern states that had already abolished slavery. The Southern slave states, which had minimal support for Lincoln, now found themselves facing a president who opposed their interests and values. This prompted the secession of eleven Southern states, leading to the Civil War. The American Civil War, therefore, can be understood as a culmination of the struggle between advocates and opponents of slavery, with Lincoln's election being the tipping point that pushed the nation towards war.
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The secession of Southern states
The Southern states' secession was driven by their commitment to slavery and the economic system it supported. The South's economy was based on large-scale farming that relied on the labour of enslaved Black people to cultivate crops like cotton and tobacco. The growth of the cotton textile industry in the North and Europe only increased the importance of slavery to the Southern economy. The election of Lincoln, who ran on a platform of keeping slavery out of the territories, threatened the South's way of life.
In the lead-up to the Civil War, defenders of slavery articulated a militant pro-slavery ideology, laying the groundwork for secession. Southerners vehemently opposed political change in the North, and sought to uphold their constitutional rights to slavery in the territories. They also aimed to maintain their political power to resist what they saw as "hostile" and "ruinous" legislation. The controversy over the Lecompton Constitution, which would have allowed slavery in Kansas, and the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which stated that slavery could spread into territories even if the majority of people in those territories were anti-slavery, further inflamed tensions.
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The extension of slavery to Western states
The American Civil War was the result of a long-standing struggle between advocates and opponents of slavery. This conflict between the Northern and Southern states had been managed through a series of political compromises. However, by the late 1850s, the issue of extending slavery to the western states had escalated tensions significantly.
As the United States expanded westward, American settlers, particularly those from the South, brought their slaves with them. This led to intense debates over the future of slavery in these new territories. Southerners were determined to protect the institution of slavery, which was deeply entrenched in their society and economy. The racialized aspect of slavery also meant that even poor whites supported it, as they considered themselves to be superior to slaves.
In an attempt to address the issue, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed a law that allowed the newly formed Kansas and Nebraska Territories to decide independently whether to ban slavery. This, however, only increased tensions, as pro-slavery Missourians moved into Kansas, leading to violent clashes with abolitionists and Free Soilers. Despite various compromises, the underlying conflict remained unresolved.
The situation was further exacerbated by the reorganization of the California territory in 1850. California, experiencing a population boom due to the Gold Rush, wanted to enter the Union as a free state. This was a significant concern for Southerners, who feared that the admission of new free states would upset the balance of power in Congress regarding slavery legislation.
The election of Abraham Lincoln, a member of the anti-slavery Republican Party, as president in 1860, was the final straw. Lincoln's victory prompted the secession of 11 Southern states, ultimately leading to the Civil War. The conflict was a result of deep-seated constitutional differences regarding slavery and its extension into Western states, with the South defending its way of life and the North resisting the expansion of slavery into new territories.
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The North's economic interests
The North's economy during the Civil War was driven by industrialization, with cities like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Chicago thriving as hubs of manufacturing and commerce. The North's diversified economy included agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce, with a growing population of wage laborers. The region's industrial capacity, fueled by European immigrant labor, enabled it to rapidly meet the military's demands for weapons, leather goods, iron and steel production, and textiles during the war.
The North's ability to industrialize and adapt to the war economy was in stark contrast to the South, which relied heavily on agriculture and slave labor. The South's smaller industrial base and fewer rail lines hindered their mobilization of resources. The North's economic system, based on free labor and industrialization, proved more effective in supporting and sustaining the war effort.
Additionally, the North's economic interests were influenced by its population and labor force. The Union had a significantly larger population than the Confederacy, with approximately 23 million people compared to the South's 9 million. This resulted in a larger pool of male soldiers aged 18 to 45, with 3.5 million in the North compared to 1 million in the South. The North's economic structure, which included a diverse range of industries, attracted immigrants, further contributing to its labor force.
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The South's economic interests
The election of Abraham Lincoln, a member of the anti-slavery Republican Party, as president in 1860, was a significant turning point. Lincoln's victory on a platform pledging to keep slavery out of the territories led to the secession of Southern states, forming the Confederate States of America. The Southern states aimed to protect their economic interests, which were closely tied to slavery and the large-scale farming it supported.
The Civil War had a devastating impact on the South's wealth. The value held in enslaved people, estimated at a minimum of $1,000 each for a healthy adult before the war, was lost. Additionally, the Confederate bonds became worthless, and most banks and railroads went bankrupt. The income per person in the South dropped significantly, and the region's influence in the federal government diminished.
During the war, the Union armies led by General William Tecumseh Sherman advanced into the Confederate heartland, destroying their economic infrastructure. The Union victory at Antietam and the subsequent Emancipation Proclamation by Lincoln further weakened the Confederacy by depriving them of their labour force and turning international public opinion against them.
The South's attempts to use cotton diplomacy to bring Britain into the war also failed. The South voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments in 1861, hoping to cause an economic depression in Europe and force British intervention. However, Europe turned to other sources for cotton, such as Egypt and India, hindering the South's postwar recovery and highlighting the vulnerability of their economic system.
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Frequently asked questions
The American Civil War was fought primarily over the issue of slavery, which had been a point of contention since the framing of the Constitution in 1787. The war was the culmination of a struggle between advocates and opponents of slavery, with the election of Abraham Lincoln, an anti-slavery Republican, in 1860, prompting the secession of Southern states. The Southern states had a fundamental economic dependence on slavery, which was increasingly at odds with the industrial North.
The US Constitution, because of compromises, ended up with both pro-slavery and anti-slavery features. The issue of slavery in new territories had been repeatedly postponed through political compromises, but by the late 1850s, it had reached a boiling point. The Supreme Court's decision in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case in 1857 escalated tensions, as it ruled that slavery could spread into territories even if the majority of people in those territories were anti-slavery.
The Northern victory in the Civil War ended slavery in the United States and preserved the nation's unity. The war also resulted in the emancipation of enslaved people and the loss of the bulk of the Confederacy's labour force. The 13th Amendment, passed in 1865, officially outlawed slavery, and the 14th and 15th Amendments guaranteed citizenship and voting rights to former slaves.
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