Eleanor Finch
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which states that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex, was passed by Congress on June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920, officially granting women the right to vote. This was the culmination of a lengthy and difficult struggle by generations of activists that lasted over 70 years, involving agitation, protest, lobbying, and civil disobedience. The campaign for women's suffrage was not only confined to the U.S. but was also part of a worldwide movement towards women's rights. Despite the passage of the 19th Amendment, it is important to note that many women of colour and minority groups were still excluded from voting due to discriminatory state voting laws and racially discriminatory tactics, such as literacy tests, long after the Amendment's ratification.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of Amendment | 19th Amendment (Amendment XIX) |
| Date of Ratification | 18 August 1920 |
| Number of States Required for Ratification | 36 |
| Final State to Ratify | Tennessee |
| Date Amendment Became Part of Constitution | 26 August 1920 |
| Text of Amendment | "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." |
| Previous Attempts to Pass Amendment | First introduced in Congress in 1878 |
| Organisations Supporting Amendment | National American Woman Suffrage Association, National Council of Women Voters, National Woman's Party, American Woman Suffrage Association |
| Notable Figures Supporting Amendment | Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Sojourner Truth, Lucretia Mott, Ida B. Wells, Sarah and Angelina Grimké, Alice Paul, Emma Smith DeVoe, Carrie Chapman Catt |
| States with Prior Women's Suffrage | Wyoming (1869), Utah (1870-1887, restored 1896), New Jersey (1776-1807) |
| Limitations of Amendment | Did not guarantee voting rights for women of colour, Native Americans, or Asian American immigrant women |
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What You'll Learn
The 19th Amendment
The road to achieving women's suffrage in the United States was challenging and faced fierce resistance. Women employed various strategies, including lecturing, writing, marching, lobbying, and civil disobedience, to achieve what many considered a radical constitutional change. The first women's suffrage amendment was introduced in Congress in 1878, but it was not until over forty years later, in 1919, that an amendment finally passed the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Despite the passage of the 19th Amendment, it is important to note that it did not guarantee all women the immediate right to vote. Women of colour, particularly in the South, continued to face barriers due to racially discriminatory tactics and laws. It would take several more decades and the passage of additional legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act in 1965, for all women to fully exercise their right to vote.
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State-by-state strategy
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which came into effect on 26 August 1920, guarantees women the right to vote. However, this was the culmination of a long and arduous struggle that took decades of agitation and protest. The campaign for women's suffrage in the United States began in the mid-19th century, with the first women's suffrage amendment introduced in Congress in 1878.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), formed in 1890, pursued a state-by-state strategy to pass women's suffrage. This strategy was also adopted by the AWSA, which included prominent male reformers as leaders and members. By 1912, nine western states had adopted women's suffrage legislation, and in the decade leading up to the 19th Amendment's passage, 23 states granted women full or partial voting rights. Wyoming Territory was the first to enact a women's suffrage law in 1869, followed by the Utah Territory in 1870. However, women's suffrage in Utah was revoked in 1887 with the passage of the Edmunds-Tucker Act, and it was not restored until Utah achieved statehood in 1896. Wyoming continued to grant women the right to vote after becoming a state in 1890.
The state-by-state strategy faced mixed success, with bids to grant women the right to vote in Washington, Nebraska, and Dakota failing throughout the 1850s and 1860s. The NAWSA's merger with the National Council of Women Voters in 1920 helped newly enfranchised women exercise their voting responsibilities. The League of Women Voters, formed by the NAWSA in 1920, continues to operate at the local, state, and national levels today.
While the 19th Amendment was a significant milestone, it did not guarantee all women the right to vote immediately. Many women of colour, particularly in the South, were excluded due to racially discriminatory tactics and literacy tests. It was not until the passage of the Voting Rights Act 45 years later that all women were finally free to vote.
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Suffrage organisations
The fight for women's suffrage was a long and arduous struggle that took place over several centuries. It involved numerous conferences, protests, hunger strikes, speeches, court cases, lobbying, organising, and marches. The first national suffrage organisations were established in 1869, with two competing organisations being formed: the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA).
National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA)
The NWSA was formed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They petitioned Congress in 1871, requesting that suffrage rights be extended to women and that women be heard on the floor of Congress. The NWSA argued for universal suffrage and opposed the proposed 15th Amendment, which would have given Black men the right to vote before white women. This created tensions with notable Black leaders, such as Frederick Douglass. The NWSA advocated for a range of reforms to make women equal members of society and sought to pass a Constitutional amendment for women's suffrage.
American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA)
The AWSA was founded by Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe, and Thomas Wentworth Higginson. They sent a petition to Congress in 1872, asking that women in Washington, D.C., and the territories be allowed to vote and hold office. The AWSA supported the 15th Amendment and gained popularity by focusing exclusively on suffrage. The organisation included prominent male reformers as leaders and members and pursued a state-by-state strategy to pass women's suffrage.
Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
The WCTU, established in 1873, was the largest women's organisation at the time and also pursued women's suffrage, giving a significant boost to the movement.
National Woman's Party (NWP)
Formed by Alice Paul in 1916, the NWP was a group focused on the passage of a national suffrage amendment. Over 200 NWP supporters, known as the Silent Sentinels, were arrested in 1917 while picketing the White House, and some went on hunger strike.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)
The NWSA and AWSA merged in 1890 to form the NAWSA, with the mission of lobbying for women's voting rights on a state-by-state basis. Under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the NAWSA made a national suffrage amendment its top priority. In 1920, the NAWSA merged with the National Council of Women Voters to help newly enfranchised women exercise their voting responsibilities.
In addition to these national organisations, there were also many state, regional, and local suffrage groups formed to increase support for women's suffrage at the local and state levels. Many of these organisations were founded by Black women who were not fully welcomed or recognised in the national organisations.
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Barriers to voting
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, was a significant milestone in the fight for women's suffrage. However, it is important to recognise that this amendment did not immediately guarantee all women the right to vote. Various barriers, both formal and informal, continued to prevent many women, especially women of colour, from exercising their voting rights.
One of the key barriers was the prevalence of discriminatory state voting laws, particularly in the South, which specifically targeted African-American women. Literacy tests, for example, were often used to disenfranchise Black voters. Interpretation tests, which involved transcribing or translating complex legal passages, were also employed and were not struck down by the courts until the late 1950s. Even when Black individuals passed these tests, they were still denied the right to register to vote, and it was illegal for registrars to explain these rejections. In contrast, illiterate white applicants were not required to take these tests or only had to answer a few questions, and registrars even provided them with answers.
Long residency requirements and poll taxes also served as barriers to voting for women, particularly those who were economically disadvantaged or had limited mobility. Additionally, the persistent belief that voting was inappropriate for women may have contributed to lower turnout among women voters.
For married women, the law often treated them as little more than property of their husbands, and they faced significant challenges in exercising their voting rights. It was only with the Cable Act of 1922 that married women could retain their citizenship and voting rights if they were married to an immigrant eligible for U.S. citizenship.
Native American women also faced unique obstacles to voting. In certain Western states, such as Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, they were denied the right to vote until the 1940s and 1950s. Asian American immigrant women, on the other hand, had to wait until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1952 to gain citizenship and the right to vote.
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Voting rights for women of colour
The 19th Amendment, which was added to the U.S. Constitution in 1920, is often celebrated as a victory for women's suffrage. However, it is important to acknowledge that the struggle for voting rights was far from over for women of colour, particularly Black women. While some Black women were able to vote after the 19th Amendment, many were effectively disenfranchised by state laws that imposed poll taxes and literacy tests, and they continued to face violence and harassment.
Black women played an active role in the universal suffrage movement in the 19th and 20th centuries, participating in political meetings and organizing societies. They understood that their unique position at the intersection of race and gender meant that they had to focus on human rights and universal suffrage, rather than suffrage for just one group. Many Black suffragists, such as Mary Ann Shadd Cary, weighed in on the debate over the 15th Amendment, which would grant Black men the right to vote but not Black women.
Black women faced challenges that were not addressed by mainstream suffrage organizations, such as negative stereotypes, harassment, and unequal access to jobs, housing, and education. As a result, in the late 1800s, they formed their own clubs and organizations, such as the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), founded by Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Charlotte Forten Grimke in 1896. The NACW's motto, "Lifting as we climb," reflected their goal to improve the status of Black women.
Despite their efforts, Black women were often ignored or not fully welcomed or recognized within national organizations. Notable Black leaders like Frederick Douglass and Black suffragists like Nannie Helen Burroughs emphasized the need for cooperation between Black and white women to achieve voting rights. Black women continued to fight for their rights, with activists like Rosa Parks and Fannie Lou Hamer making connections between voting rights and resistance to sexual harassment and assault. It wasn't until the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act that all African Americans were granted the full right to vote.
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Frequently asked questions
Women secured the right to vote in the US on August 1920, when the 19th Amendment was ratified.
The 19th Amendment to the US Constitution reads: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."
No. The road to the 19th Amendment's ratification was long and difficult. It took decades of agitation, protest, lobbying, and civil disobedience to achieve what many Americans considered a radical change of the Constitution.
No. While the 19th Amendment enabled most white women to vote, many women of colour were still excluded due to racially discriminatory state voting laws.
The passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965 finally enabled all women to vote.
