Omar Bennett
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts, dominated South America until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The Incas worked hard at diplomacy, attempting to persuade their rivals to surrender peacefully before resorting to military conquest. The Inca civilization was highly organized and centralized, with a shared language, religion, and impressive architectural achievements. However, the Spanish had superior weapons and cavalry, which ultimately led to the fall of the Inca Empire. This raises the question: was Inca diplomacy effective in maintaining their empire, or were they primarily reliant on military tactics and expansion?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Effective diplomacy | The Incas worked hard at diplomacy, trying to get their rivals to surrender peacefully before resorting to military conquest. |
| Dominance | The Incas dominated South America until the Spanish arrived. |
| Military conquest | The Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation. |
| Warfare tactics | The Incas used disciplined troops to defend and expand boundaries. They fought in restrictive terrain to limit the effectiveness of mounted troops and used boulders, slings, and arrows to attack. |
| Religion | The Incas had a shared religion based on the worship of their gods, including the sun god Inti, creator god Viracocha, thunder god Illapa, and earth-mother goddess Pachamama. |
| Language | The common tongue of the Inca Empire was Quechua. |
| Capital | The capital of the Inca Empire was Cusco. |
| Size | The Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, stretching from modern-day Argentina to southern Colombia. |
| Time period | The Inca Empire flourished in the Andean region of South America from the early 15th century AD until its conquest by the Spanish in the 1530s. |
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What You'll Learn
The Inca Empire's military conquest
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The Inca civilisation rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. The Inca Empire expanded from around 400,000 km2 in 1448 to 1,800,000 km2 in 1528, just before the arrival of the Spanish. This expansion was due to the empire's military conquests and peaceful assimilation.
The Incas worked hard at diplomacy and tried to get their rivals to surrender peacefully before resorting to military conquest. Pachacuti, the eighth Inca emperor, sent spies to regions he wanted to incorporate into his empire. These spies reported on political organisation, military strength, and wealth. Pachacuti then sent messages to the leaders of these regions, highlighting the benefits of joining his empire. He offered them luxury goods and promised material wealth. Most accepted Inca rule, but those who refused were met with military conquest.
Inca warfare was crucial to the expansion of the empire. Inca armies typically fought in restrictive terrain such as mountain passes, wetlands, and jungles, which limited the effectiveness of mounted troops. They also used narrow defiles to their advantage, luring enemies into passes before attacking them from above with boulders, slings, and arrows. In open terrain, the Incas would dig large holes filled with sharpened stakes to impale horses and riders.
Inca tactics in open battle were simple yet effective. Their formations consisted of weapon-specific units, with tribal or regional warriors adept in the use of a particular Inca weapon. Attacks would begin with long-range units, such as slingers, archers, and spear throwers, peppering enemy lines with projectiles. This would be followed by a full-frontal charge from shock troops wielding maces, clubs, and battle-axes.
The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire began in 1532 and lasted until 1572, when the last Inca state was fully conquered. The Spanish had several advantages over the Inca, including horses, metal armour, swords, cannons, and firearms. Additionally, the Inca Empire was weakened by a civil war and a smallpox epidemic immediately prior to the Spanish conquest.
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The impact of Spanish colonisation
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. It flourished in the Andean region of South America from the early 15th century until its conquest by the Spanish in the 1530s. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, also known as the Conquest of Peru, was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonisation of the Americas.
In addition to the devastating impact of disease, the Inca people also suffered enslavement, pillaging, and destruction from warfare. The Spanish conquest altered Peru's shoreline, as colonial officials resettled the survivors of the diseases inland, away from the coast. The Spanish also plundered the gold of the Inca Empire and built a new city, Lima, on the coast to facilitate communications with Panama. The Inca were further subjected to oppressive taxation and forced labour under Spanish rule, with one person from each family being required to work in the mines.
The Inca did not have a strong writing tradition, so it is difficult for historians to estimate the full extent of the population decline or the details of events after the conquest. However, it is clear that the impact of Spanish colonisation on the Inca Empire was profound and led to significant cultural, demographic, and geographic changes in the region.
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Inca religion and worship
Religion was an integral part of Inca society, influencing every aspect of community life, from marriages to agriculture and government to burials. The Incas believed in a host of gods and goddesses, with the sun god Inti occupying a central position in their worship. The Incas believed that Inti was the father of their ruler, the Sapa Inca, who was considered divine and was effectively the head of the state religion. The Sapa Inca was thus seen as the "son of the sun", and his people the "children of the sun".
The Incas also believed in a creator god, Viracocha, who was typically personified as a human male and was known as the creator of humanity and everything else in the world. Viracocha went through several transformations, often with grotesque or humorous effects. He made peoples, destroyed them, and re-created them from stone, dispersing them in four directions. Viracocha was also a culture hero, teaching people various techniques and skills. He is also said to have set off into the Pacific Ocean from the shores of Manta, Ecuador, either by walking on water or in a boat made of his cloak. Viracocha was often depicted as one of a triad of gods with Inti and Inti-Illapa, the thunder god.
The Incas also worshipped a host of other gods and goddesses, including the earth-mother goddess Pachamama, who was worshipped long before the rise of the Inca. The Incas attempted to combine their deities with those of conquered peoples in ways that raised the status of their own. For instance, Pachamama was placed below the Moon, which the Inca believed ruled over all female gods. The Incas also worshipped stellar deities, which were formed using constellations or other cosmological features and were mostly believed to be animals or activities. For example, Urcuchillay, known to Western astronomers as Lira, was thought to protect llamas and alpacas. Another important stellar deity was Qollqa (Pleiades), who was honoured as the mother of all other stellar deities.
The Incas also believed in huacas, or sacred sites, which could be man-made temples, mountains, hills, or bridges. A huaca could also be a mummy bundle, especially if it was that of a lord-Inca. The Incas mummified their dead to show reverence to their leaders and representatives, and because they believed in reincarnation, they considered the preservation of the body to be vital for passage into the afterlife. Mummification was also reserved for royalty, and the bodies were placed with the deceased's valuables in places of honour. The mummies of rulers would be removed for ceremonies and worshipped.
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The role of the Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca was the absolute ruler of the Inca Empire, also known as Tawantinsuyo or the "Land of the Four Corners". The Sapa Inca was considered divine and was effectively the head of the state religion. He was revered as the Son of the Sun, deriving his right to rule from his holy ancestor, the sun god Inti. The Sapa Inca's people were known as the Intip churin or "children of the sun".
The Sapa Inca held supreme power and his word was law. He controlled politics, society, the empire's food stores, and he served as the commander-in-chief of the army. The Sapa Inca lived a life of extreme luxury and opulence, drinking from gold and silver cups, wearing silver shoes, and residing in a palace adorned with exquisite textiles. He was also the centre of a complex system of ritual exchange, law enforcement, and military might that governed the empire.
The Sapa Inca was also responsible for presiding over ideologically important festivals, such as the Inti Raymi or "Sun Festival", which was attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics, and the general population of Cusco. The Sapa Inca was mummified upon his death and was later "consulted" for his opinion on important state matters.
The Sapa Inca's rule was not entirely unchallenged, however. While he was the absolute ruler, he had to negotiate the consent and support of his nobles, who could depose or even assassinate him. Additionally, the position of queen (Qoya) or "Our Mother" held significant influence and wealth, and she could exert power through her kin group, especially in the selection of the official heir to the throne.
The Sapa Inca's role was integral to the expansion and consolidation of the Inca Empire, which became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The empire spanned a vast region of western South America, from modern-day Argentina to southern Colombia, and was characterized by its advanced infrastructure, including a complex road system, suspension bridges, and massive temples. The Inca civilization also placed great emphasis on communication skills, ethical values such as loyalty to the state, and practical skills like weaving, pottery-making, and construction.
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Inca expansion and infrastructure
The Inca Empire, officially known as Tawantinsuyu or the "Land of the Four Corners", was a vast empire that flourished in the Andean region of South America from the early 15th century until its conquest by the Spanish in the 1530s. The Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centred on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation. The administrative, political, and military centre of the empire was in the city of Cusco, which was located at a nexus point between two earlier empires.
The Inca civilisation rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century and expanded rapidly under the leadership of its fourth and eighth emperors. The empire's expansion was facilitated by its advanced road system, which provided fast movement of people, goods, and information throughout the territory. The Incas built their road system by expanding and reinforcing pre-existing smaller networks of roads, adapting and improving previous infrastructures, and setting up a system of formal roads with maintenance. The road system was also used for military purposes, allowing for the quick deployment of troops and the coordination of attacks.
Inca warfare tactics were crucial to the expansion of the empire, with disciplined troops defending and expanding boundaries. Inca armies typically fought in restrictive terrain such as mountain passes, wetlands, and jungles, which limited the effectiveness of mounted troops. They also utilised boulders, slings, and arrows to attack enemies from above in narrow passes. In open terrain, they dug large pits filled with sharpened stakes to trap cavalry horses and their riders.
The Inca Empire was able to expand and consolidate its power through a combination of military conquests, strategic use of infrastructure, and diplomatic efforts to peacefully assimilate rival groups. The empire's expansion was also facilitated by the existing infrastructure left behind by preceding empires, such as hydraulic systems and highways. The Incas worked hard at diplomacy and tried to get their rivals to surrender peacefully before resorting to military conquest.
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Frequently asked questions
Inca warfare was crucial to the expansion of the empire. Inca armies would fight in restrictive terrain such as mountain passes, wetlands and jungles, which limited the effectiveness of mounted troops. They also used narrow defiles to attack enemies from above with boulders, slings and arrows.
The Spanish had superior weapons and cavalry, which the Incas had to adapt to. The Incas responded by fighting in terrain that would naturally restrict the effectiveness of horses, or altering the terrain to impede them.
The Inca Empire, officially the Realm of the Four Parts, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. It dominated South America until the Spanish arrived in the 1530s. The empire was centred on the city of Cusco, which was considered the "navel of the world".
The Incas worked hard at diplomacy, trying to get their rivals to surrender peacefully before resorting to military conquest. They also benefited from the infrastructure left behind by preceding empires, such as highways and hydraulic systems.
The Inca government was centralised, with the Sapa Inca as the absolute ruler and head of the state religion. The empire was divided into four "suyu", which were further divided into provinces. Local administrators relied on a combination of personal relations, state largesse, ritual exchange, law enforcement and military might.
