Jonah Patel
Diplomacy was used extensively during World War II, with the primary diplomatic players being the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. The diplomatic history of World War II includes the major foreign policies and interactions inside the opposing coalitions, the Allies of World War II and the Axis powers. The diplomatic landscape was complex, with the Axis powers' diplomacy being a minor factor, and the Allies' diplomacy evolving as new countries joined the war. The United States entered the war when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and American diplomacy stepped up with large quantities of financial and economic assistance. The Soviet Union's main diplomatic goal was initially to win support to defend against the massive German invasion. The British goals were to defeat the German threat, maintain their roles in Central and Eastern Europe, and preserve the British Empire.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year | 1939-1945 |
| Parties Involved | The Allies (Britain, France, Russia, Italy, the United States), The Axis Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria), Japan, China |
| Efforts | The US tried to prevent Nazi activity in South America, encouraged Vichy to resist German demands, and promoted democracy to combat communism |
| Outcome | Failure to prevent World War II |
| Post-War Diplomacy | The US and the Soviet Union divided Germany and Berlin into two; the US occupied West Germany and West Berlin, and the Soviet Union occupied East Germany and East Berlin |
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What You'll Learn
The US's anti-Nazi activity in Latin America
The rise of Nazism in the Americas in the 1930s led to the formation of American Nazi parties that engaged in activities such as spreading Nazi propaganda, storming newspapers, and infiltrating non-political organizations. This rise in Nazi sympathies in the Americas was met with resistance from anti-Nazi Jewish organizations in the United States, such as the Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League to Champion Human Rights.
The United States made anti-Nazi activity in Latin America a high priority, especially after perceiving propaganda efforts in the region by Germany and Italy. In July 1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) to counter these propaganda efforts. Roosevelt aimed to enhance his Good Neighbor policy, promote Pan-Americanism, and prevent military hostility in Latin America through cultural diplomacy. The US also issued radio broadcasts and created motion pictures to spread anti-fascist propaganda across Latin America.
The US collaborated with other countries and resistance figures to create the Latin American Comite of Alemanes Libres, generating anti-fascist sentiment in the region. However, the US was also complicit in some cases of Nazi war criminals escaping to South America after World War II. For example, the US Counter-Intelligence Corps recruited Klaus Barbie, a Gestapo chief, as an agent to assist with anti-communist efforts in Bolivia, where he instructed the regime on torture and interrogation techniques.
The US also competed with the Soviet Union to poach scientists from the Third Reich to assist in their respective Cold War efforts. This competition extended to South America, where both superpowers sought to recruit Nazis with military, scientific, and technical expertise. Despite these instances of cooperation or complicity, the US generally worked to prevent the spread of Nazism and fascism in Latin America through diplomatic and propaganda efforts.
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The Tehran Conference of 1943
Stalin insisted that the conference take place in Tehran, as he refused to meet anywhere except Russian-controlled territory. The conference was held at the Soviet embassy in Tehran, just over a year after the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.
The main focus of the conference was to coordinate military strategy against Germany and Japan and to make important decisions regarding the post-World War II era. One of the most notable outcomes of the conference was the agreement to open a second front against Nazi Germany in Western Europe, specifically in Vichy France. This decision led to the D-Day invasion on June 6, 1944, and the rest of Operation Overlord.
During the conference, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin also discussed the terms under which the British and Americans would commit to Operation Overlord. Stalin agreed to launch another offensive on the Eastern Front to divert German troops from the Allied campaign in northern France. Additionally, the Soviet Union committed to joining the war against Japan after an Allied victory over Germany. Roosevelt, in exchange, conceded to Stalin's demands for access to certain territories in China and the Kurile Islands.
The three leaders also discussed the fate of Eastern Europe and Germany in the postwar period, and issued the Tehran Declaration, guaranteeing the postwar independence and boundaries of Iran. They also touched upon the composition of the United Nations, with Roosevelt outlining his vision of an organization dominated by the "four policemen": the US, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union, who would maintain international peace and security.
The Tehran Conference played a crucial role in shaping the course of World War II, influencing the military strategies and international relations of the Allied powers. Despite its significance, it is not as well-known as the two major conferences that followed: the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.
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The US's encouragement of anti-German Vichy government
The US initially granted the Vichy government full diplomatic recognition and sent Admiral William D. Leahy to France as an American ambassador. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull aimed to use American influence to encourage anti-German elements within the Vichy government. They hoped to discourage the Vichy government from complying with German war demands, such as providing air bases in French-mandated Syria or facilitating the movement of war supplies through French territories in North Africa. The US position was that France should not undertake any actions that were not explicitly required by the armistice terms and could harm Allied war efforts.
The Vichy government, led by Marshal Philippe Pétain, came to power in July 1940 after the military defeat of France. Pétain established an authoritarian regime, reversing liberal policies and imposing tight control over the economy and media. The regime was antisemitic and promoted anti-Soviet sentiments after the launch of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. The Vichy government willingly collaborated with Nazi Germany, conducting raids to capture Jews and other "undesirables" in both the occupied and unoccupied zones of France. They also passed laws to deport workers to Germany and enacted policies targeting Jews, such as removing them from civil service and seizing their property.
Despite initial American efforts to influence the Vichy government, Germany took full control, leading the US and Canada to cut diplomatic ties. By 1942, Germany demanded that Vichy turn over Jews for deportation to concentration camps, and Vichy complied, turning over 80,000 Jews, of whom 77,000 were killed. The Vichy government's collaboration with Nazi Germany and its active participation in the Holocaust became increasingly clear as the war progressed.
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The Grand Alliance between the US, Britain, and the Soviet Union
The Grand Alliance, formed in 1941, was a wartime alliance between the US, Britain, and the Soviet Union, with the shared goal of defeating Nazi Germany during World War II. The alliance was led by the 'Big Three': Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin. Despite their differences, the three powers united due to the necessity of defeating Nazi Germany and its allies.
The formation of the Grand Alliance was facilitated by several conferences and agreements. Notably, the Atlantic Charter established common goals between the UK and the US, while the United Nations Declaration formalised the alliance. The Moscow Declarations further outlined the alliance's post-war vision. The Tehran Conference in 1943 marked the first in-person meeting of the 'Big Three'. During this conference, they issued the Tehran Declaration, guaranteeing the postwar independence and boundaries of Iran.
The Grand Alliance faced challenges due to differing political and economic ideologies, as well as varying goals for the postwar world. The US and the Soviet Union, in particular, distrusted each other and struggled to agree on matters concerning post-war Germany and Europe. Stalin was concerned with securing a communist sphere of influence, which clashed with the US's focus on promoting democracy and halting the spread of communism. The Soviet Union's refusal to aid the Polish Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising and the exclusion of the Soviets from secret negotiations with German officers further strained the alliance.
Despite these differences and challenges, the Grand Alliance played a crucial role in achieving victory during World War II. The coordination and cooperation between the three powers, especially on the Eastern Front, were essential in defeating Nazi Germany.
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The US's war against Japan
The United States' war against Japan was part of the broader Pacific Theatre of World War II. The conflict between the two nations can be traced back to their competing interests in Chinese markets and Asian natural resources. The US opposed Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and refused to recognize the new regime, invoking the Stimson Doctrine to support Chinese sovereignty. However, American companies continued to supply Japan with resources, and an isolationist movement within the US argued against intervention in international conflicts.
The turning point in the Pacific War came with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which decimated the US Pacific Fleet and prompted the United States to declare war on Japan the following day. Japan had envisioned that a rapid and aggressive conquest would force the US into a negotiated peace, recognizing Japanese hegemony in Asia. The US responded by sending bombers and crews to China and engaging in counteroffensives in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea.
The Battle of Midway in June 1942 marked a turning point in the Pacific War, with the Japanese fleet sustaining heavy losses and being forced to retreat. Allied forces gradually gained naval and air supremacy, island by island, incurring significant casualties along the way. The Japanese, however, managed to defend their positions on the Chinese mainland until 1945.
In October 1944, American forces began retaking the Philippines, and by August 1945, the United States had dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, resulting in the deaths of approximately 120,000 civilians and Japan's unconditional surrender on August 15. The US also faced Kamikaze attacks by Japanese pilots in 1944 and 1945, which caused significant damage to warships such as the "USS Nevada" and the "USS Ticonderoga." The war concluded with the signing of a surrender document on September 2, 1945, and Japan lost its former possessions in Asia and the Pacific, remaining under Allied occupation until 1952.
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Frequently asked questions
The US believed that Germany intended to subvert and take control of South America's economy. In response, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) to counter German and Italian propaganda efforts in Latin America. The US also encouraged Vichy to resist German demands and worked to keep China alive.
The UK engaged in personal diplomacy at frequent conferences, manipulating publicity to influence public opinion in favor of their policies. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill also forged close ties with France and the United States, particularly through his relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The Soviet Union joined the war in June 1941, forming the Grand Alliance with the US and UK. However, the Soviet Union, particularly under Joseph Stalin, generally eschewed negotiation and compromise, viewing diplomacy as a means to press for concessions rather than mutual compromise.
