Omar Bennett
Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far, was a favourite saying of President Theodore Roosevelt, and it came to define his approach to foreign policy. This big stick was a sizable naval force, and Roosevelt was not afraid to use it to intimidate smaller nations into conforming to U.S. desires. One of the most notable examples of Roosevelt's big stick diplomacy was the construction of the Panama Canal. The U.S. had long been interested in building a canal across the Central American isthmus, and Panama was the obvious choice. However, when Colombia, of which Panama was then a part, rejected a treaty granting the U.S. a lease on the land, Roosevelt chose to wield the big stick. He supported a Panamanian revolution against Colombia, sending American battleships to the Colombian coast to prevent the suppression of the uprising. Panama became an independent republic, and immediately signed a treaty with the U.S., allowing for the construction of the Panama Canal.
| Characteristics | Values | |
|---|---|---|
| Roosevelt's approach to foreign policy | "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far" | |
| Roosevelt's belief in achieving foreign policy goals | Unnecessary to use force so long as the military could threaten it | |
| Roosevelt's belief in the inevitable conflict between "civilized" and "barbarian" peoples | The United States was a great civilizing power and had an obligation and right to bring order to the world | |
| Roosevelt's interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine | Assertive involvement in the affairs of other nations in the Western Hemisphere | |
| Roosevelt's policy | Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine | |
| Roosevelt's policy came to be known as | The United States as the "policeman" of the Western Hemisphere | |
| Roosevelt's policy put the United States in the role of the | "Policeman" of the Western Hemisphere | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Military intervention in various circumstances | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Informal methods of empire, such as "dollar diplomacy" | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Active intervention in Latin America | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Control over Cuba and Puerto Rico | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Ensuring Panama's independence from Colombia | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Building the Panama Canal | |
| Roosevelt's policy was used as a rationale for | Establishing protectorates over Cuba and Panama |
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What You'll Learn
Roosevelt's foreign policy approach
President Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy approach was characterised by his "big stick" ideology, which he summarised as "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far". This approach was built on his belief in the inevitable conflict between "civilised" and "barbarian" peoples, and that the United States was a civilising power with an obligation to bring order to the world.
Roosevelt's "big stick" ideology was a significant aspect of US foreign policy throughout the twentieth century. It involved negotiating peacefully, but also having the strength to take action if needed. This often translated to using the threat of military force to achieve diplomatic goals. Roosevelt believed that the "big stick", or the persuasive power of the US military, could assure US hegemony over important regions in the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy was notably used in Panama. In 1901, the US negotiated with Britain for support of an American-controlled canal in either Nicaragua or Panama, which was then a department of Colombia. The US had long been interested in building a canal in the region, and Roosevelt was determined to succeed. When Colombia rejected the terms of the agreement, Roosevelt backed a revolution in Panama, even sending American battleships to the coast of Colombia to prevent the suppression of the uprising. Within two weeks, the US recognised Panama as an independent nation, and Panama signed a treaty with the US, allowing for the construction of the Panama Canal.
Roosevelt also applied his "big stick" diplomacy in Venezuela and the Dominican Republic (then known as Santo Domingo). In 1902, he demanded that Germany and Britain, who had sent ships to blockade Venezuela's coastline due to unpaid loans, agree to arbitration to resolve the dispute. He also exerted US control over the Dominican Republic's custom service revenues.
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US intervention in Panama's independence
The United States' intervention in Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903 is a key example of its "Big Stick" diplomacy in the region. This policy, associated with President Theodore Roosevelt, was characterised by a combination of assertive military strength and covert action to further US interests in Latin America and the Caribbean.
In the case of Panama, the US had a strategic interest in building a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which would require a strip of land in Panama, then owned by Colombia. When the Colombian Senate rejected a treaty granting the US a 99-year lease on the canal corridor, Roosevelt defied international law and Congress by backing a Panamanian revolution with money and a naval blockade, preventing Colombian troops from landing. This support was instrumental in securing Panama's independence and the subsequent signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903, which granted the US perpetual control of the Panama Canal Zone for $10 million and an annual payment of $250,000.
The construction of the Panama Canal, completed in 1914, was a significant engineering feat. It shortened the voyage from San Francisco to New York by over 8,000 miles and converted the Panama Canal Zone into a major staging area for US military forces, solidifying the country's dominance in Central America. The canal also had commercial benefits, facilitating the expansion of US markets and promoting American economic interests, particularly in the sugar industry.
The US intervention in Panama's independence and the subsequent canal construction had lasting impacts on bilateral relations. The US established diplomatic relations with Panama in 1903 and opened its first diplomatic mission in the country in 1904. However, tensions over the canal and changes in Panama's government led to interruptions in diplomatic relations throughout the 20th century, including a sharp deterioration under Manuel Noriega's rule in the late 1980s, illustrating the complex dynamics between the two nations.
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The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
The treaty established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal. The United States was allowed to govern and fortify this Canal Zone, with the right to act with sovereignty over the entire 10-mile-wide ocean-to-ocean zone. In return, Panama was guaranteed its independence and received $10,000,000 upfront, plus an annual payment of $250,000, starting nine years later. The US also bought the shares and assets of the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama for $40 million, as stipulated in the earlier Hay-Herrán Treaty. This earlier treaty, negotiated with Colombia (which then controlled Panama) in 1903, would have given the US control of the canal zone and included the purchase of French-held land. However, the Colombian government rejected the Hay-Herrán Treaty, considering it an infringement on its national sovereignty and the compensation inadequate.
The harsher effects of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty were later mitigated by subsequent treaties in 1936 and 1955. The United States gave up its right to acquire additional lands and waters adjacent to the canal, granted Panamanian control over the ports of Colón and Panama City, and increased the wages of Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone. However, Panama continued to push for more significant changes, including full sovereignty over the canal. In 1977, the Torrijos-Carter Treaties were signed, abolishing the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty and allowing the gradual transfer of control of the Canal Zone to Panama. Full control of the Panama Canal was handed over on December 31, 1999.
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US military involvement in Panama
One of the most notable examples of this policy in action was the establishment of the Panama Canal. In 1901, the United States negotiated with Britain for support for an American-controlled canal to be constructed in either Nicaragua or Panama, which was then owned by Colombia. When Colombia rejected the terms of the agreement, the US backed a Panamanian revolution with money and a naval blockade, preventing Colombian troops from landing in Panama. Panama seceded from Colombia and became the Republic of Panama, signing a treaty with the US and leasing land for the construction of the Panama Canal. The canal was completed in 1914 and became a major staging area for American military forces, making the US the dominant military power in Central America.
In the 1980s, relations between Panama and the US became strained following the death of Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos. Manuel Noriega, who had participated in the coup that brought Torrijos to power, consolidated military and civilian power in Panama. Noriega had served as a paid informant for the CIA and supported the counterrevolutionary force, the contras. However, it was revealed that he had also been involved in drug smuggling into the US and the murder of an opponent, Hugo Spadafora. In 1989, he annulled the results of a presidential election, sparking international condemnation and leading US President George Bush to dispatch 2,000 troops to US bases in the Panama Canal Zone. Following the killing of an American serviceman by Panamanian forces and the deterioration of relations between the two countries, the US launched Operation Just Cause in December 1989, with over 20,000 troops invading Panama to remove Noriega from power and bring him to the US to face drug charges. The invasion resulted in the deaths of 23 US military personnel and between 514 and 1,000 Panamanian soldiers and civilians. Noriega surrendered on 3 January 1990 and was found guilty of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering.
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The Panama Canal's construction
The Panama Canal is an artificial 82-kilometre (51-mile) waterway that connects the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. The idea of constructing a canal that would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans was a centuries-old dream. In 1846, the Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 further fuelled the demand for a passage across Panama, with American businessman William Henry Aspinwall operating steamship legs from New York City to Panama and then from Panama to California.
In 1870, US President Grant established an Interoceanic Canal Commission to investigate possible routes for a canal across Central America. The commission decided in favour of Nicaragua, but in 1881, the French diplomat and entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had successfully constructed the Suez Canal, began construction on a sea-level canal across Panama. De Lesseps' company raised funds from small French investors, based on the profits generated by the Suez Canal. However, the Panama Canal presented a much greater engineering challenge due to its combination of tropical rainforests, debilitating climate, the need for canal locks, and the lack of any ancient route to follow. The French project faced numerous difficulties, including flooding, landslides, and disease, which resulted in a high death toll. From 1881 to 1889, over 22,000 people lost their lives, including 5,000 French citizens.
In 1901, the United States negotiated with Britain for the support of an American-controlled canal, either in Nicaragua or Panama, which was then owned by Colombia. When Colombia rejected the terms of the agreement, the United States, under President Theodore Roosevelt, supported a Panamanian revolution with money and a naval blockade. Panama seceded from Colombia, becoming the Republic of Panama, and signed a treaty with the United States, allowing the construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt's aggressive foreign policy, characterised as "big stick diplomacy," aimed to bully smaller nations into conforming to US desires.
In 1903, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with Panama gave the United States perpetual control of the canal. Construction of the Panama Canal began under American leadership in 1904, with Chief Engineer John Findley Wallace overseeing the project. The Americans focused on addressing the health risks, particularly malaria and yellow fever, that had plagued the French attempt. The Panama Canal was finally completed in 1914, after ten years of construction and the labour of nearly 30,000 workers. The canal significantly shortened the voyage from San Francisco to New York and facilitated maritime trade between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It also converted the Panama Canal Zone into a major staging area for American military forces, establishing the United States as the dominant military power in Central America.
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Frequently asked questions
The 'big stick' is a reference to military strength. The term 'big stick diplomacy' comes from President Theodore Roosevelt's saying, "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far". Roosevelt believed that it was unnecessary to use force to achieve foreign policy goals, as long as the military could threaten force.
In 1903, the US supported a Panamanian revolution with money and a naval blockade, which prevented Colombian troops from landing in Panama. Roosevelt immediately recognised Panama as an independent country, and it became an American protectorate. Panama then signed a treaty with the US, allowing for the construction of the Panama Canal.
The Panama Canal was a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which the US had wanted to build since the mid-16th century. The canal was built between 1904 and 1914, and it shortened the voyage from San Francisco to New York by more than 8,000 miles.
