Isabella Carter
The Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to the early 20th centuries, experienced two short-lived periods of constitutional rule. The First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876 to 1878, and the Second Constitutional Era from 1908 to 1922. Both eras were marked by attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy and introduce democratic reforms, but they were ultimately undermined by political instability, ethnic tensions, and the rise of nationalist sentiments within the empire. The Young Turks, a reformist movement that sought to liberalize and modernize Ottoman society and politics, played a key role in the Second Constitutional Era, which also saw the emergence of multi-party politics and a two-stage electoral system. Despite these efforts, the Ottoman Empire's decline continued, and it was defeated and dissolved in 1922, leading to the establishment of the modern state of Turkey and its first constitution in 1921.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Years in effect | 1876-1878, 1908-1922 |
| Number of constitutions | 1 |
| Authors | Members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha |
| Years of adoption | 1876, 1908, 1921 |
| Years of suspension | 1878, 1920 |
| Type of government | Constitutional monarchy |
| Type of reform | Westernization |
| Type of constitution | Liberal |
| Type of assembly | Bicameral parliament, General Assembly |
| Number of political parties | Multi-party politics |
| Type of electoral system | Two-stage |
| Type of law | Secular |
| Type of nationalism | Ottoman |
| Type of autonomy | Autonomy for Christians |
| Type of language | Ottoman Turkish |
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What You'll Learn
The First Constitutional Era (1876-1878)
The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the First Constitutional Era, lasted from December 23, 1876, to January 13, 1878. This period marked the Empire's first brief encounter with democracy and constitutional monarchy.
The First Constitutional Era was ushered in by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who ascended to the throne in 1876 during a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire. One of his first acts as Sultan was to introduce a constitution, which was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha. The constitution proposed a bicameral parliament, consisting of the Sultan-selected Senate and the generally elected Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies had 115 members, reflecting the distribution of millets in the empire, with 69 Muslim millet representatives and 46 representatives from other millets, including Jews, Phanariotes, and Armenians. The constitution was influenced by the Armenian National Constitution, drafted by Western-educated Armenians in 1863, and the Constitutions of Belgium and Prussia (1850).
The First Constitutional Era was a significant milestone in Turkish history, as it represented a move towards constitutionalism and a check on autocracy. The Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists, supported the idea of a constitutional monarchy, believing that it would foster a sense of Ottoman nationalism and prevent ethnic conflict. They argued that the codification of secular law would help the empire retain its remaining Balkan territories.
However, the First Constitutional Era was short-lived. In 1877-1878, the Ottoman Empire faced a war with Russia, known as the Russo-Turkish War. Following criticism of his handling of the war, Sultan Abdul Hamid II used his constitutional power to suspend parliament and the constitution. He then ruled as an autocrat, emphasizing the empire's Islamic character and his position as Caliph. The war against Russia was traumatic for the empire, and the suspension of the constitution marked the end of the First Constitutional Era.
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The Second Constitutional Era (1908-1920)
The Young Turks were an underground movement of reformists who called for the restoration of constitutional monarchy and an end to Sultan Abdulhamid II's absolutism. A faction within the Young Turks, known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), forced Abdulhamid II to restore the liberal constitution of 1876 and the General Assembly in the Young Turk Revolution. The First Constitutional Era, which lasted from 1876 to 1878, had lacked political parties and featured a bicameral parliament consisting of a Sultan-selected Senate and a generally elected Chamber of Deputies. In contrast, the Second Constitutional Era was marked by unprecedented political pluralism and openly contested elections within the empire.
The revived Ottoman Parliament in 1908 consisted of two chambers: a Senate (upper house) and a Chamber of Deputies (lower house). The Chamber of Deputies was elected by the people, with one member representing every 50,000 males over the age of 25 who paid taxes. Senators, on the other hand, were nominated for life by the Sultan, had to be over 40 years old, and could not exceed one-third of the membership of the Chamber of Deputies. General elections were to be held every four years.
The Second Constitutional Era was marked by increasing ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire, which was costing lives and resources. The new constitution secured freedom of the press, and the parliamentary conduct was closely watched by members of various diplomatic missions. Despite the presence of multiple political parties, the CUP became the biggest party in the fragmented parliament, winning 60 out of 275 seats.
The Second Constitutional Era came to an end in 1920 with the dissolution of the General Assembly. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, and the CUP conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens. Following the Ottoman surrender in 1918, the CUP leadership fled into exile, and the Allies occupied Constantinople. The Ottoman Parliament angered the Allies by signing the Amasya Protocol with Turkish revolutionaries, leading to the forced dissolution of the assembly and the end of the Second Constitutional Era.
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The Young Turks movement
The Young Turks favored a reinstatement of the Ottoman Parliament and the 1876 constitution, written by the reformist Midhat Pasha. They believed that the codification of secular law in the Ottoman Empire would foster a sense of Ottoman nationalism and prevent ethnic conflict, helping the empire retain its remaining Balkan territories. The Young Turks became a truly organized movement under the umbrella of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which was established in 1889 as the standard bearer of the opposition to Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The CUP advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government and the exclusion of all foreign influence.
In 1906, the Ottoman Freedom Society (OFS) was established in Thessalonica by Mehmed Talaat, actively recruiting members from the Third Army base, including Major Ismail Enver. The OFS merged with the CUP in Paris the following year, bringing the Young Turk ideologists command of the III Army Corps. In 1907, the CUP and the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, a rival faction led by Prince Sabaheddin, agreed to work together to achieve their common goal of revolution and constitutional government. In July 1908, Major Ahmed Niyazi of the 3rd Corps led a revolt against the provincial authorities in Resna, sparking a rebellion that rapidly spread throughout the empire. Facing the rebellion, Sultan Abdul Hamid II was forced to restore the 1876 constitution and recall parliament on July 23, 1908, marking the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.
The Young Turks introduced programs to promote the modernization and industrialization of Turkish society, as well as a new spirit of Turkish nationalism. However, their deep-seated ideological differences prevented them from taking effective control of the government. Their handling of foreign affairs, including their alliance with the Central Powers during World War I, resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman state and the empire's entry into a wave of ethnic cleansing and genocide against its Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens. Following the Ottoman surrender in 1918, the CUP leadership fled into exile, and the Allies occupied Constantinople, bringing an end to the Second Constitutional Era.
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The Armenian National Constitution's influence
The Armenian National Constitution was promulgated in 1863 and was a form of a "Code of Regulations" that defined the powers of the Armenian Patriarch, the newly formed Armenian National Assembly, and the rights and privileges of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. It was composed of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia, including Western-educated Armenians of the Ottoman Empire. The Constitution was seen as a milestone by Armenian reformers, as it attempted to define Armenia as a modern nation.
The Armenian National Assembly had wide-ranging functions, including the power to elect the Armenian Governor by a local Armenian legislative council. The Assembly also appointed Armenian tax collectors for Armenian villages and established courts of justice for the Armenian community. Suffrage was granted to tax-paying members of the Gregorian Church, and Patriarch Mikrtich issued a decree permitting women to have equal votes with men and asking them to participate in all elections. However, women's suffrage does not appear to have been considered.
The Armenian National Constitution played a significant role in shaping the Ottoman Constitution of 1876, which was drawn up by Western-educated Ottoman Armenian Krikor Odian, an advisor to Midhat Pasha. The Armenian National Constitution and its authors directly influenced the Ottoman Constitution, which was introduced during a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire. The goal of these reforms, known as the Tanzimat era, was to Westernize the Ottoman Empire and address the inequalities faced by non-Muslim minorities.
The Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire underwent a cultural renaissance in the 18th century, known as the Armenian national awakening. This period saw the revival of classical Armenian learning and the interpretation of new ideas from Western Europe, including the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. In the 19th century, American and English missionaries also influenced the Armenian community, leading to the creation of the small Armenian Protestant millet. The Armenian National Constitution was a product of these intellectual and cultural influences, as well as the desire for reform within the Armenian community.
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The Tanzimat period (1839-1876)
The Tanzimat period began with the Gülhane Edict of 1839, also known as the "Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber," which was issued by Sultan Abdulmejid I. This edict promised security of life, property, and honour for all subjects, regardless of their religion or race. It also called for the establishment of new institutions, a standardized system of taxation, and fairer methods of military conscription and training. The reforms included the establishment of the Ministry of Trade and Agriculture, the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes, and the creation of the Ministry of Post and the first post offices. The Council of Public Education was also established to regulate and modernize the Ottoman educational system.
The Tanzimat period also saw the introduction of secular courts, modern education, and infrastructure development such as railways. However, these reforms faced resistance from conservative clerics, exacerbated ethnic tensions, and saddled the empire with crippling foreign debt. Despite these challenges, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects, including the education of major personalities of the nation states that would later develop from the Ottoman Empire.
The Tanzimat period ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876, which marked the peak of the reforms and the implementation of an Ottoman constitution that checked the autocratic powers of the Sultan. The constitution was drawn up by Western-educated Ottoman Armenian Krikor Odian, who was an advisor to Midhat Pasha. Midhat Pasha was a key figure during the Tanzimat period, respected in Europe for his vision of an Empire where "there would be neither Muslim nor non-Muslim but only Ottomans". The groups that formed as a result, such as the Young Ottomans and the Committee of Union and Progress, sought to bring about real reform through concrete action.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, the Ottoman Empire adopted constitutionalism as its form of government twice in its history. The First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876 to 1878, and the Second Constitutional Era lasted from 1908 to 1922.
The First Constitutional Era was the first time the Ottoman Empire was governed by a constitution. It lasted from 1876 to 1878 and was established by Sultan Abdul Hamid II after he ascended to the throne in 1876. The constitution was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha.
The Second Constitutional Era was a period of restored parliamentary rule in the Ottoman Empire. It lasted from 1908 to 1922 and began with the Young Turk Revolution, which restored the 1876 constitution. This era featured multi-party politics and a two-stage electoral system.
The constitutional eras in the Ottoman Empire were significant as they introduced democratic reforms and attempted to modernize the state's institutions. The First Constitutional Era was short-lived and ended when Sultan Abdul Hamid II suspended the parliament and constitution in 1878. The Second Constitutional Era was a period of decline for the Empire, marked by ethnic and sectarian violence, and ended with the dissolution of the assembly by the Allies following World War I.
