Isabella Carter
The Mexican War of Independence was a series of revolts that emerged from the political turmoil in Spain and Mexico in the early 19th century. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 sparked a crisis of legitimacy for the Spanish crown, leading to the formation of juntas in Spain and its colonies. The delegates drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which aimed to establish a new governing framework. In Mexico, the struggle for independence was led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who is considered the father of Mexican independence. Hidalgo inspired tens of thousands of men to join the uprising, but he lacked a clear military strategy. After his death in 1811, the movement was led by Father José María Morelos, who drafted the Sentimientos de la Nación in 1813, explicitly outlining the goals of the insurgency. The final push for independence came in 1820, with Mexico reacting to revolutionary events in Spain that undermined colonial authority. Following independence, Mexico was organized as the First Mexican Empire, a constitutional monarchy led by Agustín de Iturbide. However, this monarchy was short-lived, and a federal republic was declared in 1823, leading to the Constitution of 1824.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Mexican War of Independence | 16 September 1810 |
| Leader of Mexican War of Independence | Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla |
| First Mexican Constitution | Constitution of Apatzingán, 1814 |
| End of Mexican War of Independence | 24 August 1821 |
| Treaty | Treaty of Córdoba |
| Plan for Independence | Plan de Iguala, 1821 |
| Type of Government | Constitutional monarchy |
| First Mexican Emperor | Agustín de Iturbide |
| Federal Republic | 1823 |
| Constitution | 1824 |
| Number of States | 19 |
| Number of Territories | 4 |
| Special Status Removed | Indigenous peoples |
| Date of US Recognition | 12 December 1822 |
| Texas Independence | 1836 |
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What You'll Learn
The Plan of Iguala
The delegates drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which sought to create a new governing framework. The Mexican War of Independence was a series of revolts that grew out of increasing political turmoil in Spain and Mexico at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The conflict in Spain and the political upheaval galvanised the people living in its American colonies to determine their future. American-born Spaniards initiated an insurgency against colonial powers, and Indigenous and mixed-race people, hoping for an end to the Spanish casta system, became key players in the Mexican War of Independence.
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The Constitution of Apatzingán
The Mexican War of Independence was sparked by an uprising led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810. Iturbide, a royalist colonel, was sent to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. However, Iturbide initiated contact with Guerrero, indicating he was considering abandoning the royalist cause. Iturbide and Guerrero collaborated on the Plan de Iguala, which proposed Mexican independence as a constitutional monarchy, preserving the status of the Catholic Church and granting equality to Spaniards and criollos.
- The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion as the official state religion.
- The power to make laws and establish the form of government that best serves the interests of society resides in the sovereignty.
- The sovereignty resides originally in the people, and its exercise is delegated to a national representation composed of deputies elected by the citizens as prescribed by the constitution.
- The legislative, executive, and judicial powers must not be vested in a single person or corporation.
- All those born in Mexican America are deemed citizens.
However, the Constitution of Apatzingán never fully entered into force, as José María Morelos y Pavón, a key leader of the independence movement, was imprisoned and executed in December 1815.
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The Spanish Constitution of 1812
The Mexican War of Independence was sparked by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's uprising on 16 September 1810, leading to a series of revolts across Mexico and Spanish America. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a crisis of legitimacy for the Spanish crown, as Napoleon placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. This crisis led to the drafting of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, also known as the Constitution of Cádiz, the first written Spanish constitution.
The Constitution of Cádiz was promulgated on 19 March 1812 by the Cortes of Cádiz, the first Spanish legislature to include delegates from all of Spain and its possessions, including Spanish America and the Philippines. It was one of the earliest codified constitutions in world history and the founding document of liberalism in Spain. The constitution affirmed national sovereignty, separation of powers, freedom of the press, and free enterprise. Notably, it also proclaimed Roman Catholicism as the official and sole legal religion in Spain.
The 1812 Constitution had a direct impact on the emerging states of Spanish America, including Mexico. It provided for the creation of local governments for settlements with over 1,000 people, transforming these institutions from elite-controlled to representative bodies through indirect elections. This benefited the Criollos, who came to dominate these local governments. The Constitution of Cádiz also influenced the Mexican Constitution of 1824, serving as a model for several other liberal constitutions in Mediterranean and Latin American nations.
In Mexico, the struggle for independence broke down into local revolts and guerrilla actions after 1815. The final push for independence came in response to revolutionary events in Spain, which undermined Spanish authority in the colonies. Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist colonel, proposed a blueprint for Mexican independence called the Plan de Iguala in 1821. This plan offered three guarantees: the preservation of the Catholic Church, Mexican independence as a constitutional monarchy, and equality between Spaniards and Criollos. Iturbide did not agree with the liberal direction of the Spanish government and wanted to increase the power of the Church. The Plan de Iguala was a reaction to the liberal Cadiz Constitution, demonstrating the influence of the 1812 Constitution on the Mexican path to independence.
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The Mexican War of Independence's leaders
The Mexican War of Independence was sparked by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, with his "Cry of Dolores" on September 16, 1810. He inspired tens of thousands of people to join his populist army, but he did not have a broad military strategy. He was defeated at Calderón in January 1811 and executed.
After Hidalgo's death, other peasant leaders continued the fight for independence. Father José María Morelos, a cleric and Hidalgo's former student, took over as leader. He had a clear vision for Mexico's future and superior organisational and political skills. Under his leadership, a clear declaration of independence from Spain was made and a constitution was drafted. However, Morelos was unable to secure criollo backing and had to rely on mestizo support. He was captured and executed in 1815, and the movement devolved into a series of local revolts and guerrilla warfare.
Vicente R. Guerrero emerged as a leader during this period of guerrilla warfare. In 1821, he formed an alliance with Agustín de Iturbide, a former royalist commander, under the Plan of Iguala. Together, they proposed a blueprint for independence, offering three guarantees: the preservation of the Catholic Church, the independence of Mexico as a constitutional monarchy, and equality for Spaniards and criollos. Iturbide, a favourite of the Mexican church hierarchy, symbolised conservative creole values. He had gained renown for his zeal against the rebels during the early independence struggle.
The unified military force rapidly defeated the royal government, leading to the establishment of an independent Mexico. In 1822, Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico. However, his empire was short-lived, and he was deposed by republican leaders in 1823, leading to the establishment of a federal republic and the Constitution of 1824.
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The First Mexican Empire
The Mexican War of Independence was sparked by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's uprising on 16 September 1810. This war was a series of revolts that emerged from the increasing political turmoil in Spain and Mexico at the beginning of the 19th century. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Spain fought on both sides, leading to frequent interruptions in its commerce with its American colonies. As Spain faced a deepening economic crisis, rulers looked to the colonies to increase revenues and meet European obligations. In 1804, a royal decree ordered the confiscation of certain church assets for the crown, causing a financial crisis in Mexico as credit from the church dried up.
In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain and placement of his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne sparked a crisis of legitimacy. In response, juntas were set up in Spain and its colonies to rule in the name of the Bourbon monarchy. Delegates in Cádiz drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which sought to establish a new governing framework.
In December 1820, a force led by royalist Colonel Agustín de Iturbide was sent to defeat insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. However, Iturbide initiated contact with Guerrero in January 1821, expressing his desire to abandon the royalist cause. Together, they proposed the Plan de Iguala or the Plan of Iguala, which offered three guarantees: the preservation of the Catholic Church's status, the independence of Mexico as a constitutional monarchy, and equality for Spaniards and criollos (Americans or all Mexicans regardless of ethnic category). Iturbide defeated the remaining Royalist forces, and the new Spanish viceroy was forced to accept Mexican independence. On 24 August 1821, the Treaty of Córdoba was signed, approving Mexico's independence as a constitutional monarchy.
Under Iturbide, the mainland of New Spain was organised as the First Mexican Empire, a constitutional monarchy. The territory of the Mexican Empire corresponded to the borders of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, excluding Cuba, Santo Domingo, and the Philippines. The Central American lands of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala were annexed to the Empire shortly after its establishment. The First Mexican Empire reached its greatest territorial extent under the First Empire, stretching from northern California to the provinces of Central America.
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Frequently asked questions
The Mexican War of Independence was sparked by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1808, which led to a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule. This, in turn, led to a series of revolts in Spanish America.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is considered the "father of Mexican independence". He inspired tens of thousands of men to follow him and issued important decrees during the later stages of the insurgency. Other key figures include Ignacio Allende, José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero.
The Mexican War of Independence resulted in Mexico becoming an independent constitutional monarchy, with the Treaty of Córdoba being signed on August 24, 1821. The mainland of New Spain was organised as the First Mexican Empire, led by Agustín de Iturbide. However, this was short-lived, and a federal republic was declared in 1823, which was codified in the Constitution of 1824.
The Constitution of 1824 provided for a federal republic consisting of 19 states, four territories, and the Mexico City federal district. It set a number of democratic goals, but also resulted in the loss of special colonial status and protections for indigenous peoples.
