Ottoman Empire's First Constitutional Era: Why It Failed

The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the First Ottoman Constitutional Period, was a short-lived experiment in democracy that lasted from 1876 to 1878. The period began with the introduction of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876, which was written by Western-educated Armenian advisor Krikor Odian and Grand Vizier Midhat Pasha during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. While the constitution included liberal principles such as personal liberty, property rights, and a free press, the First Constitutional Era was marked by political instability, with Sultan Abdul Hamid II suspending Parliament and the constitution in 1878 following criticism of his handling of the war with Russia. This period also lacked political parties, and the Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists, began to gain support, advocating for the restoration of a constitutional monarchy. The failure of the First Constitutional Era set the stage for the Second Constitutional Era, which began in 1908 with the Young Turk Revolution and the restoration of the 1876 constitution.

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Sultan Abdülhamid II suspended parliament in 1878

The suspension of parliament in 1878 came after the Russo-Turkish War, which ended in February 1878 with the Treaty of San Stefano. The war resulted in a Russian victory, and the treaty imposed harsh terms on the Ottoman Empire, including the cession of vast lands to Russia and the granting of independence to several Balkan states.

Sultan Abdülhamid II's decision to suspend parliament and dismiss the constitution in 1878 was likely influenced by the political turmoil and the desire to consolidate power. The suspension of parliament allowed him to exert greater control over the empire, which was facing rebellions and insurgencies, particularly in the Balkans. This period also witnessed the emergence of national liberation movements among ethnic minorities, further challenging the sultan's authority.

The suspension of parliament and the constitution did not go uncontested. Supporters of constitutional monarchy, including the Young Turks, advocated for the reinstatement of the 1876 constitution. The Young Turks movement, which arose during Sultan Abdülhamid II's reign, played a significant role in opposing his repressive policies and advocating for constitutional governance. Their efforts eventually led to the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, which forced the sultan to recall parliament and reinstate the constitution. However, Sultan Abdülhamid II attempted to reassert his absolutism, resulting in his deposition by pro-constitutionalist forces in the 31 March Incident of 1909.

The constitution was never practised after suspension

The Ottoman Empire's First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876 to 1878. The constitution was written by Western-educated Ottoman Armenian Krikor Odian, who was the advisor of Midhat Pasha. The First Constitutional Era was short-lived, and the constitution was never practised after its suspension.

Sultan Abdülhamid II suspended the Parliament in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish War. The sultan did not officially interfere with the constitution, and the constitution was still mentioned in the official yearbooks of the empire. However, it was never practised or put into force again during this period.

Supporters of the constitutional monarchy, including the Young Turks, continued to campaign for the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 to be reinstated. They believed that a constitutional monarchy was in accordance with Islam and that the constitution did not prevent Sharia law. The Young Turks' opposition to Sultan Abdülhamid II's rule gained momentum in 1895, and they were supported by the Islamic scholars (ulama).

The First Constitutional Era was marked by attempts at reform within the empire. The constitution included liberal principles, providing for freedoms such as personal liberty, property rights, and a free press within legal limits. It also made provisions for a representative government, with an elected Chamber of Deputies and an appointed Senate. However, the era lacked political parties, and the parliament was temporarily closed in 1878, leading to the suspension of the constitution.

The Young Turks accelerated opposition from 1895

The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was short-lived, lasting from 1876 to 1878. The constitution was drawn up by Western-educated Armenian Krikor Odian, who was the advisor to Midhat Pasha. It was introduced by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who transformed the empire into a constitutional monarchy. However, in the aftermath of the Russian invasion of 1877-1878, the Sultan suspended parliament and the constitution, choosing instead to rule as an autocrat.

The Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists, started to accelerate their opposition to Sultan Abdul Hamid II's rule from 1895. They were supported by the ulama, Islamic scholars, who advocated for the suitability of a constitutional monarchy alongside Sharia law. The Young Turks' efforts culminated in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which forced the Sultan to restore the 1876 constitution and the General Assembly, marking the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.

The Second Constitutional Era was a period of restored parliamentary rule, featuring unprecedented political pluralism and openly contested elections. It was during this time that the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), a faction within the Young Turks, was formed. The CUP conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens during World War I. After the Ottoman Empire's surrender in 1918, the CUP leadership fled into exile.

The First Constitutional Era's failure was due to external factors, such as the Russian invasion, as well as internal factors, including the Sultan's decision to suspend parliament and the constitution. The opposition led by the Young Turks played a significant role in accelerating the transition to the Second Constitutional Era, which offered a more pluralistic and politically active environment.

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The Committee of Union and Progress believed the country was divided

The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the First Ottoman Constitutional Period, lasted from 1876 to 1878. It was a short-lived experiment in democracy, with Sultan Abdul Hamid II introducing a constitution and transforming the empire into a constitutional monarchy. However, in the aftermath of the Russian invasion of 1877-1878 and facing criticism for his handling of the war, Abdulhamid II suspended parliament and the constitution, choosing instead to rule as an autocrat.

The Second Constitutional Era, also known as the Second Constitutional Period, lasted from 1908 until after World War I when the Ottoman Empire was dissolved. This period saw the rise of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), a faction within the Young Turks underground movement. The Young Turks had long opposed the rule of Sultan Abdulhamid II and advocated for the restoration of the 1876 constitution and a constitutional monarchy. The CUP believed that the country was divided among the powerful and that immediate action was necessary. They launched intense campaigns and, in 1908, forced Abdulhamid II to reinstate the liberal constitution and the General Assembly in what became known as the Young Turk Revolution.

The Second Constitutional Era witnessed the formation of many political groups and parties, including the CUP. The period initially featured unprecedented political pluralism and openly contested elections. However, clashes arose between different factions, and the CUP was accused of incessant intervention in the government. The CUP conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens during World War I, in what became known as the Late Ottoman genocides.

The Second Constitutional Era came to an end with the dissolution of the assembly by the Allies following the Ottoman Empire's surrender in 1918. The CUP leadership fled into exile, and the empire was partitioned. The First and Second Constitutional Eras represented significant milestones in the Ottoman Empire's attempts to establish a modern, enlightened state with democratic principles and institutions. However, these eras were marked by political turmoil, ideological clashes, and, ultimately, the failure to sustain democratic practices.

The second constitutional era ended with the dissolution of the assembly

The Second Constitutional Era, also known as the Second Meşrutiyet Devri, was a period of restored parliamentary rule in the Ottoman Empire. It lasted from 23 July 1908, when the council gathered again after the Young Turk Revolution, until 30 October 1918, when the Armistice of Mudros was signed. The Second Constitutional Era was characterised by the implementation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876, which was seen as a symbol of freedom by the Young Turks, with various arrangements and amendments.

The Young Turks, an underground movement of reformists, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the liberal constitution of 1876 and the General Assembly through the Young Turk Revolution of 1908. This revolution changed the political structure of the Empire, establishing multi-party politics and a two-stage electoral system for the Ottoman parliament. The Second Constitutional Era was marked by the formation of many political groups and parties, including the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). The CUP, however, faced criticism and accusations of authoritarianism and was blamed for the discontent and strikes that occurred during this period.

The Second Constitutional Era was a time of continuing military failures by the Ottoman Empire, with Italy invading Ottoman Tripolitania in 1911 and the empire losing much of its remaining European territory to the Balkan League in 1912. When the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, the CUP conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens. Following the Ottoman surrender in 1918, the CUP leadership fled into exile, and the Allies occupied Constantinople.

The Second Constitutional Era came to an end with the dissolution of the assembly as a result of the Allies' plans for the partition of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Parliament's signing of the Amasya Protocol with Turkish revolutionaries in Ankara further angered the Allies, leading to the forced dissolution of the assembly. The dissolution of the Ottoman Parliament left the Sultan as the sole authority in the Empire, bringing an end to the Second Constitutional Era and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.

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