Eleanor Finch
The Indian Independence Movement, a series of historic events in South Asia, aimed to end British colonial rule. It lasted until 1947, when the Indian Independence Act was passed, and India gained independence. The Indian National Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, became the dominant party, with a clear majority in five provinces. However, the country was partitioned along religious lines, creating two separate countries: India, with a Hindu majority, and Pakistan, with a Muslim majority. This partition led to a massive population transfer and significant loss of life. The Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, was drafted by a committee chaired by B.R. Ambedkar and declared India a sovereign, democratic republic, ensuring citizens' rights to justice, equality, and liberty.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Constitution coming into force | 26 January 1950 |
| Number of Articles | 395 |
| Number of Schedules | 8 |
| Number of Parts | 22 |
| First Speaker of the Lok Sabha | G. V. Mavlankar |
| First Prime Minister | Jawaharlal Nehru |
| First President | Rajendra Prasad |
| Chairman of the Drafting Committee | B. R. Ambedkar |
| Other Drafting Committee members | K.M. Munshi, Muhammed Sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Devi Prasad Khaitan, BL Mitter |
| Second vice-president of Constituent Assembly | V. T. Krishnamachari, Harendra Coomar Mookerjee |
| Constitutional advisor | Sir B. N. Rau |
| Number of amendments since enactment | More than 100 |
| Type of government | Democratic republic with Westminster style parliamentary system of government at the federal and state level |
| Key features | Universal suffrage for all adults, independent judiciary, quotas for "socially and educationally backward citizens" |
Explore related products
What You'll Learn
- The Indian National Congress lost credibility with the people
- The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress
- The Rowlatt Act was passed despite opposition from Indian members in the Viceroy's council
- The Indian Independence Act 1947 outlined the partition of India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan
- The Constitution of India was drafted to take effect on January 26, 1950, marking India's transition to a republic
The Indian National Congress lost credibility with the people
The Indian National Congress (INC) was a major political party in India, which played a significant role in the country's independence movement and dominated the early political scene of the republic. The party was founded in 1885, initially seeking moderate reforms under the British Raj. However, by the 1920s and 1930s, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the INC adopted a policy of non-violent civil disobedience to achieve self-rule.
Despite its early successes and influence, the INC began to lose credibility with the people for several reasons. Firstly, the arrest of prominent leader Tilak stalled the momentum of the Indian offensive and led to a loss of faith in the party. Additionally, the INC's transition from advocating for moderate reforms to focusing on independence through civil disobedience may have alienated some of its initial supporters who favoured a more gradual approach.
Another factor contributing to the INC's loss of credibility was the resentment caused by economic policies that favoured the British. India was a major producer of cotton, yet the raw material was exported to Britain at low rates, while refined cotton cloth was imported back and sold at high prices. This imbalanced trade drained India's economy and caused significant resentment among cotton cultivators, traders, and the general population, who boycotted British goods and pledged to use only Indian products.
The INC also faced internal divisions and factionalism, which likely impacted its public image. Following the death of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964, the party struggled to fill the vacuum left by his 17-year leadership. Indira Gandhi emerged as a strong leader, but her cabinet suffered defeats, and the party became divided into multiple factions, including the Indian National Congress (I), Indian National Congress (O), Bharatiya Kranti Dal, Utkal Congress, and Bangla Congress.
Furthermore, the INC's false promises to the people may have contributed to their loss of credibility. The party's politicians made promises that they failed to keep, angering the public and causing them to seek alternative political movements.
As a result of these factors, the INC began to lose its dominance in Indian politics, and by 2014, it had been out of power at the central government level for several years. The INC's decline demonstrates the dynamic and evolving nature of India's political landscape, where the party that once led the country towards independence eventually lost favour with the people.
The Evolution of Europe's First Constitution
You may want to see also
The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress
The Indian Independence Movement was a series of events with the ultimate goal of ending British colonial rule in India. The movement lasted until 1947, when the Indian Independence Act 1947 was passed, and India gained its independence. However, during the movement, there were significant divisions between Hindus and Muslims, which led to the insistence of the Muslim League on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress.
The All-India Muslim League was founded in 1906 to promote loyalty to the British and advance the political rights of Indian Muslims. The League sought to safeguard the rights of Muslims, who felt that their interests were not adequately represented by the Hindu-dominated Congress. The Muslim League saw itself as the voice of a "nation within a nation," emphasising the distinct identity and interests of Muslims within the larger Indian nation.
The divisions between Hindus and Muslims in India during the early 20th century were influenced by several factors. One significant factor was the partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon. The partition created a separate province for the Muslim-dominant area of eastern Bengal and Assam, which was seen as an acknowledgment of the separateness of Muslims by the British. This partition foreshadowed the later division of Bengal into Muslim-majority and Hindu-majority districts in 1947, leading to the creation of East Pakistan.
Additionally, there were socioeconomic disparities between Hindus and Muslims during this period. Hindus were more successful in adapting to the rapidly changing socioeconomic conditions, leading to their dominance in industry, commerce, and government service. In contrast, Muslims, especially those from eastern Bengal, lagged behind economically and educationally. These disparities contributed to a sense of marginalisation among Muslims and reinforced their desire for separate representation and protection of their rights.
The Muslim League's insistence on its separateness from Congress was evident in its demands for separate electorates and reserved seats in the Imperial Council. These demands were granted in the Indian Councils Act, which increased Muslim representation in the Imperial and provincial legislatures. The League also sought guarantees for Muslim minority rights and insisted on these guarantees as the price of its participation with Congress in the nationalist movement. In 1916, the Lucknow Pact was signed between the two groups, recognising a separate Muslim electorate in return for support against British rule.
However, the relationship between the Muslim League and Congress remained strained, and communalism grew rapidly, leading to riots and further dividing the two communities. The Muslim League's shift towards a separatist movement gained momentum after 1939, and it was not until 1940 that the League explicitly called for the formation of a separate Muslim state, which would become Pakistan.
The First Constitutional Democracy: A Country's Legacy
You may want to see also
The Rowlatt Act was passed despite opposition from Indian members in the Viceroy's council
The Rowlatt Act, officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi on 18 March 1919. This act extended the emergency measures of the Defence of India Act 1915, which included preventive indefinite detention, imprisonment without trial, and judicial review. The Defence of India Act was enacted during the First World War, and the Rowlatt Act extended these measures indefinitely, citing a perceived threat from revolutionary nationalists.
Despite strong opposition from Indian members in the Viceroy's council, Lord Chelmsford, the then-Viceroy, passed the act. The Indian members were non-official, and their opposition was universal. The act allowed the police to arrest anyone without cause, and it was seen as a way to curb the growing nationalist movement in the country. The act infuriated many Indian leaders and the public, leading to widespread protests and civil disobedience. Mahatma Gandhi, who would become a prominent leader in the Indian struggle for independence, was brought to the forefront of the movement through his opposition to the Rowlatt Act.
On 6 April 1919, a hartal was held, during which Indians suspended businesses and went on strike. They also fasted, prayed, and held public meetings to oppose the 'Black Act' and show their commitment to civil disobedience. One of the largest protests occurred in Ambala, Punjab Province, under the chairmanship of the lawyer Jhanda Singh Giani. The success of the hartal in Delhi on 30 March was overshadowed by tensions and rioting in Punjab, Delhi, and Gujarat. Gandhi suspended the resistance, deciding that Indians were not ready to commit to non-violent protest.
The Rowlatt Act came into effect on 21 March 1919, and the protest movement in Punjab remained strong. On 10 April, two leaders of the Indian National Congress, Dr. Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested and taken to Dharamsala. On 13 April, people from neighbouring villages gathered in Amritsar to protest their deportation and to celebrate Baisakhi Day. The army was called in, and Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer blocked the only entrance to the protest site, ordering his troops to fire on the crowd of around 15,000 unarmed men, women, and children. This event became known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
The Indian Independence Movement lasted until 1947, when the Indian Independence Act was passed, and India became a sovereign, democratic republic with its own constitution. The constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, and India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown.
The Evolution of Our Constitution: Writing and Revisions
You may want to see also
Explore related products
![History of the Constituent Assembly. [Translated from the French.]: 40180](https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/61uLRyoRUyL._AC_UY218_.jpg)
The Indian Independence Act 1947 outlined the partition of India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan
The Indian Independence Act 1947 was passed on 18 July 1947, outlining the partition of British India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. This act marked a key moment in the history of the British Empire, bringing an end to British colonial rule in India.
The partition was a highly controversial arrangement, leading to mass migration, ethnic violence, and a series of horrific massacres along the border regions. The process was overseen by Lord Mountbatten, then Viceroy and Governor-General of India, who announced the date of independence as 14 August 1947. The partition plan, known as the "Mountbatten Plan" or the "3 June Plan", involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and Punjab, based on the Hindu or Muslim majorities in each district. It also included the division of the armed forces, the civil service, and other governmental institutions.
The principle of partition was accepted by the British Government, and the successor governments of India and Pakistan were granted dominion status. Princely states were given the right to join either dominion, with the option to remain independent being denied. The state of Junagadh, with a Hindu majority but a Muslim ruler, initially acceded to Pakistan but later faced a revolt from its Hindu population, leading to a referendum and its eventual integration into India. The province of Hyderabad, with a Muslim ruler and a Hindu majority, lobbied for Dominion status and international recognition but ultimately joined India after facing the Telangana Rebellion and agitation by Indian nationalists.
The partition resulted in the largest population movement in history, with millions of people becoming refugees. Muslims travelled to Pakistan, while Sikhs and Hindus migrated to India. Up to a million refugees lost their lives in the violent massacres that occurred during this period. Tensions between the two newly formed nations quickly escalated, with the first of three full-scale wars breaking out over the princely state of Kashmir. Despite the presence of British-officered Indian Army regiments, maintaining law and order in the region proved challenging. The British Army began a gradual withdrawal from the subcontinent, with the last unit leaving India in February 1948.
The Indian Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, repealing the Indian Independence Act 1947 and the Government of India Act 1935. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign, democratic republic.
The Indian Constitution's First Signature: A Historical Moment
You may want to see also
The Constitution of India was drafted to take effect on January 26, 1950, marking India's transition to a republic
The Constitution of India was drafted to come into force on 26 January 1950, marking India's transition to a republic. This was a significant moment in the country's history, as it signified the official end of British colonial rule and the establishment of a sovereign, democratic republic. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. The constitution declared India a "'Union of States', recognising the need for a loose federal structure that united the princely states and British India at the centre.
The process of drafting the constitution began in 1946, with the appointment of a constitutional advisor and the formation of the Constituent Assembly, which included prominent figures such as Rajendra Prasad, Sarojini Naidu, and Mahatma Gandhi. The Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946, and the drafting process took almost three years to complete, with the constitution finally being passed and adopted by the assembly on 26 November 1949. The constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, with 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts. This day is now celebrated annually in India as Republic Day.
The constitution was designed to protect the fundamental rights of the people and ensure justice, equality, and liberty. It included provisions for universal suffrage, a Westminster-style parliamentary system of government at the federal and state levels, and an independent judiciary. It also addressed land ownership and profession, which were considered fundamental rights at the time. The judiciary, as mandated by the constitution, acts as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds and protecting the fundamental rights of citizens.
The constitution-drafting process was not without opposition and criticism. The Indian Independence Movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi, had a significant impact on the constitution, with Gandhi's policy of non-violence and civil disobedience influencing its focus on secularism and the protection of minority rights. The movement also saw widespread popular discontent, demonstrations, and British repression, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, Punjab, in 1919. The Muslim League, seeking to represent Muslims as a "nation within a nation", also played a role in shaping the constitution, with the British recognising some of their petitions in the Indian Councils Act 1909.
In addition to internal opposition, there was also external criticism from the British. For example, Sir Conrad Corfield, head of the Political Department, resigned in protest of Mountbatten's policies, which were also criticised by the opposition Conservative Party in Britain. Despite these challenges, the constitution of independent India was successfully drafted and implemented, marking a crucial step in the country's transition to a sovereign, democratic republic.
Mali's First Constitution: A Historical Overview
You may want to see also
Frequently asked questions
Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Azad, and Abdul Ghaffar Khan were some of the key figures in the Indian Independence Movement.
The Indian Independence Act 1947 led to the dissolution of the British Raj in South Asia and the creation of two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. This led to a massive population transfer of more than 10 million people and the death of about one million people.
The princely states were territories under the suzerainty of the British Crown, with varying degrees of control over their internal affairs. After independence, the integration of these princely states into an Indian Union became a key objective of the Indian National Congress. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Louis Mountbatten, and V. P. Menon played crucial roles in negotiating and ensuring the accession of these states to form a united India.
The first Constitution of independent India, which came into force on January 26, 1950, established India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic. It provided for universal suffrage, a Westminster-style parliamentary system, and an independent judiciary. The Constitution also included provisions for reserved quotas for socially and educationally backward citizens in various fields.
