Eleanor Finch
Jacksonian diplomacy refers to the foreign policy approach associated with Andrew Jackson, the 7th President of the United States, who took office in 1829. Jackson's diplomacy was characterized by a strong sense of nationalism and expansionism, with a particular focus on acquiring Texas from Mexico. Jackson's administration achieved several diplomatic triumphs, including trade agreements with various nations and the settlement of spoliation claims against several European countries. Jacksonianism has experienced a resurgence in recent years, influencing the foreign policy approaches of populist leaders like Donald Trump, with its combination of ethno-nationalism, anti-elitism, and commitment to the values of the American folk community.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| View of world politics | Global affairs will inevitably appear as a competitive game, be it in politics or economics. |
| Foreign policy | The United States ought to be “vigilant and armed” on the world stage. |
| View of enemies | The enemy of the United States is both inside and outside the country. |
| View of the US government | The role of the US government is to fulfill the country’s destiny by looking after the physical security and economic well-being of the American people in their national home. |
| View of corruption | Jacksonians are not obsessed with corruption, seeing it as an ineradicable part of politics. |
| View of perversion | They care deeply about what they see as perversion—when politicians try to use the government to oppress the people rather than protect them. |
| View of American exceptionalism | Rooted in the country’s singular commitment to the equality and dignity of individual American citizens. |
| View of American populism | Rooted in the thought and culture of the country’s first populist president, Andrew Jackson. |
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What You'll Learn
Jackson's expansionist foreign policy
Jacksonian diplomacy refers to the foreign policy doctrines espoused by two prominent American figures: Andrew Jackson and Jesse Jackson, both of whom have left a significant mark on the country's political landscape.
Andrew Jackson's Expansionist Foreign Policy
Andrew Jackson's foreign policy was characterized by a strong belief in American expansionism, also known as "Manifest Destiny." This ideology held that the United States was destined to expand its territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, settling the American West and establishing control. Jacksonians advocated for the removal of American Indians from the Southeast to make way for this expansion.
During his presidency, Jackson achieved several diplomatic triumphs, including settling spoliation claims against Denmark, Portugal, and Spain, and forging trade agreements with Russia, Spain, Turkey, Great Britain, and Siam. The treaty with Great Britain reopened American trade with the British West Indies, and the agreement with Siam marked the first treaty between the US and an Asiatic nation. These initiatives led to a significant increase in American exports and imports.
However, Jackson's expansionist desires also led to tensions with Mexico, as he sought to acquire the border province of Texas. His clumsy attempts at negotiation, which included bribery and personal influence, failed to secure the purchase of Texas and ultimately sowed the seeds of distrust between the two nations, leading to war a decade later.
Jesse Jackson's Foreign Policy Views
Jesse Jackson, a prominent civil rights leader and politician, shaped American foreign policy discussions during the Cold War era. He challenged traditional liberal views on world politics, arguing that global affairs were a competitive game where the American people risked losing out due to their overreliance on the global economy.
Jackson advocated for a new foreign policy that recognized the needs of all people, regardless of race, gender, or language. He promoted respect for international law and human rights, self-determination for oppressed peoples, and investment in economic and human development. He criticized the use of military might as the primary tool of foreign policy and connected mistaken priorities in US foreign policy with neglected domestic needs.
In summary, both Andrew and Jesse Jackson influenced American foreign policy in significant ways. Andrew Jackson's expansionist agenda led to increased trade and diplomatic triumphs, but also contributed to tensions with Mexico. Jesse Jackson, on the other hand, offered a unique perspective during the Cold War, advocating for a more inclusive and principled approach to global affairs that recognized the humanity and needs of all people.
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Texas and Mexico
In 1836, Texas successfully fought for its independence from Mexico. However, the Mexicans threatened war if the United States attempted to annex Texas. As a result, while the US recognised Texan independence, it did not pursue annexation until 1844, during the presidency of John Tyler, who negotiated a Treaty of Annexation with Texas. This caused Mexico to sever diplomatic ties with the US, and the treaty was ultimately defeated in the Senate.
James K. Polk, who became US president in 1845, was a strong supporter of Jacksonian democracy and expansionism. He sought to annex Texas and fulfil his "four great measures" which included the acquisition of California. In pursuit of this goal, Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico with instructions to negotiate the purchase of the disputed areas along the Texan border, as well as the territories of New Mexico and California. However, the Mexican President, José Joaquín de Herrera, refused to receive Slidell, considering his intentions as an attempt to dismember Mexico.
In response to the snub, Polk ordered troops under General Zachary Taylor to occupy the disputed area between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In April 1846, Mexican troops attacked Taylor's forces, which Polk used to justify war with Mexico. The Mexican-American War lasted from 1846 to 1848 and resulted in a US victory, with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo solidifying the US annexation of Texas and the cession of Mexican territory, including parts of modern-day New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, and western Colorado.
The war and its aftermath had significant consequences for civil and political rights, particularly for Mexicans living in the annexed territories. While the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo promised US citizenship to former Mexican citizens, the ceded states enacted laws that restricted citizenship and certain rights, such as voting and holding government positions, for non-white Mexicans.
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Nationalism and anti-elitism
Jacksonian diplomacy, also known as Jacksonianism, was a 19th-century political philosophy in the United States that restructured several federal institutions. It was named after the seventh US president, Andrew Jackson, and his supporters, becoming the dominant political worldview for a generation. The Jacksonian worldview combines elements of ethno-nationalism and anti-elitism with a strong commitment to the values of the American 'folk community'.
The era, known as the Jacksonian Era or Second Party System, lasted roughly from Jackson's 1828 presidential election until the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, when slavery became the dominant issue. It emerged when the long-dominant Democratic-Republican Party became factionalized around the 1824 presidential election, and Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party.
Jacksonian nationalism and anti-elitism were characterized by a belief in the expansion of democracy, but only for white men, as voting rights were extended to adult white males. Jackson sought to end what he termed a 'monopoly of government by elites', and Jacksonians demanded elected, not appointed, judges, rewriting many state constitutions to reflect these new values. They also promoted the strength of the presidency and the executive branch at the expense of Congress, while seeking to broaden the public's participation in government.
In national terms, Jacksonianism favored geographical expansionism, justifying it in terms of manifest destiny. This was reflected in Jackson's diplomatic triumphs, including trade agreements with Russia, Spain, Turkey, Great Britain, and Siam, the latter being the first such agreement between the US and an Asiatic nation. Jackson's expansionist policies also included unsuccessful attempts to dislodge Great Britain's position in South America and acquire Texas.
The Jacksonian worldview has been cited as a basis for understanding the popular appeal of former US President Donald Trump's militaristic view of foreign affairs and America First rhetoric. Trump's approach to global politics, with its emphasis on restoring US military power and defending immediate American interests, resonates with the Jacksonian mindset that views global affairs as a competitive game and emphasizes the need for the United States to be 'vigilant and armed' on the world stage.
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Defence of the Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine was a cornerstone of US foreign policy, outlined in US President James Monroe's 1823 annual message to Congress. It was largely crafted by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, who would later become president himself. The Doctrine was a unilateral declaration by the United States, proclaiming the US as the protector of the Western Hemisphere. It forbade European powers from colonizing additional territories in the Americas and committing to non-interference in European affairs and conflicts.
Andrew Jackson succeeded Adams as president in 1829, and his diplomacy was focused on acquiring Mexican border province Texas for the United States. Jackson's agent, Anthony Butler, was clumsy and dabbled in bribery and personal influence, arousing Mexican suspicions of American intentions. In 1835, American emigrants to Texas, led by Jackson's comrade Sam Houston, revolted against Mexico and declared independence. This episode demonstrates Jackson's commitment to expanding US territory and defending the Monroe Doctrine.
The Monroe Doctrine was an expression of American ambition and a statement of US preeminence in the hemisphere. It reflected the country's interest in acquiring Texas and Cuba and its commercial aspirations in Latin America. The Doctrine was also a response to concerns in both Britain and the United States about the intentions of Continental powers, such as Russia's territorial ambitions in North America.
The Doctrine was successfully enforced in part by the United Kingdom, which used it to further its Pax Britannica policy. However, it was also broken several times, such as during the Second French intervention in Mexico. By the 20th century, the United States was able to enforce the Doctrine successfully, and it became a defining moment in its foreign policy. The Monroe Doctrine has been invoked by many US statesmen and presidents and continues to be variably denounced, reinstated, or reinterpreted into the 21st century.
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Trade agreements
One of Jackson's notable achievements in foreign policy was the trade agreement reached with Great Britain. This agreement opened the British West Indies and Canada to American exports, marking a significant expansion of US trade in the region. The agreement, which had eluded previous presidents, represented a major victory for Jackson. However, the British refused to allow American ships to engage in the West Indian carrying trade, indicating a partial limitation to the agreement.
Routine Trade Agreements
The Jackson administration also concluded routine trade agreements with several other nations, including Russia, Spain, the Ottoman Empire, and Siam. These agreements contributed to a broader strategy of expanding American exports, particularly cotton, which saw a remarkable increase of 75% during this period.
Spoliation Claims and Trade
The settlement of spoliation claims was another crucial aspect of Jackson's trade diplomacy. One notable example was the 1831 treaty with France, which agreed to pay claims for Napoleonic depredations on American shipping. However, the refusal of the French Chamber of Deputies to appropriate the necessary funds led to a dispute that nearly brought the two nations to war.
Trade and Territorial Ambitions
Jacksonian diplomacy also linked trade interests with territorial ambitions. During the Pierce administration, a modest trade treaty was signed with the Japanese shogunate, marking the end of Japan's isolation and the expansion of trade between the two countries. Similarly, the Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty with New Granada deepened military and trade ties, showcasing how trade agreements could serve broader geopolitical strategies.
Opposition to Trade Agreements
It is worth noting that modern-day Jacksonians, influenced by the thought of President Andrew Jackson, tend to view recent trade agreements with skepticism. This skepticism arises not from a detailed understanding of the agreements' terms but from a belief that the negotiators may not have fully represented the United States' interests. Jacksonians often hold a pessimistic view of global politics, prioritizing the protection of America's immediate interests and displaying a distrust of elites' liberal foreign policy.
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Frequently asked questions
John Quincy Adams was President before Andrew Jackson, who took office in 1829.
Jackson was focused on acquiring the Mexican province of Texas for the United States. He sent an agent, Anthony Butler, to negotiate, but the mission failed.
Jackson settled spoliation claims against Denmark, Portugal, and Spain, and made trade agreements with Russia, Spain, Turkey, Great Britain, and Siam.
Jacksonians are nationalists who believe the United States ought to be "vigilant and armed" on the world stage. They are anti-elitist and committed to the values of the American "folk community".
Jeffersonians are more realist in their approach to international relations and seek to reduce the United States' global profile to minimize the costs and risks of foreign policy. Jacksonians, on the other hand, are more populist and nationalist.
