England's First Constitutional Monarch: A Historical Perspective

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, a form of government in which the monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of King William IV's successor, Queen Victoria. During her reign, the United Kingdom experienced great cultural change, technological progress, and became one of the world's foremost powers.

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The first English king

The monarchy of the United Kingdom, also referred to as the British monarchy, is a form of government where a hereditary monarch acts as the head of state, with their authority regulated by the British constitution. The current monarch is King Charles III, who ascended the throne following the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, on September 8, 2022.

While the United Kingdom is now a constitutional monarchy, it was not always this way. The first English king to rule over a unitary kingdom was Æthelstan, the grandson of Alfred the Great, who ruled from 924 to 939. Alfred the Great secured the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, which survived the Viking raids and settlements of the 9th century. Alfred's son, Edward the Elder, and his grandson, Æthelstan, gradually expanded their control over the rest of England. Æthelstan was the first to adopt the title "King of the English" and is considered the founder of the English monarchy.

The transition to a constitutional monarchy occurred during the long reign of Queen Victoria, who ruled from 1837 to 1901. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only allowed male succession, so the union between the United Kingdom and Hanover ended. The Victorian era witnessed significant cultural shifts, technological advancements, and the emergence of the United Kingdom as a leading global power. In recognition of British rule in India, Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.

Prior to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, England experienced a period of upheaval known as the Anarchy. This occurred after Henry I's death in 1135, when his nephew Stephen seized the throne despite Henry's decision to name his daughter Matilda as his heir. Matilda challenged Stephen's reign, leading to a compromise that resulted in Matilda's son Henry II succeeding Stephen as the first Angevin king of England and the inaugural monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty in 1154.

The Anarchy

Stephen was a grandson of William the Conqueror and had the support of most barons and the Church. He was a prominent and well-liked member of Henry I's court, and his good relationship with his uncle led to the latter's support of his claim to the throne. Stephen was recorded as having an affable personality, but his inability to make tough decisions led to chaos during his reign. His weak leadership was exploited by the nobility, and the robber barons became greedy, ruling the local populace with an iron fist.

Matilda, meanwhile, had her claim to the throne upheld by her half-brother Robert of Gloucester, one of Henry I's illegitimate sons, and her uncle King David I of Scotland. Matilda summoned her son Henry Plantagenet, known as Henry Fitz Empress, to England to fight for her claim.

The civil war was considered particularly destructive, even by the standards of medieval warfare. One chronicler stated that "Christ and his saints were asleep" during the period. The conflict led to a breakdown in law and order, with members of the clergy and barons becoming a law unto themselves. Unlicensed castles began to appear, and the king of Scotland and local Welsh rulers took advantage of the long civil war to seize disputed lands.

The Plantagenet dynasty

The House of Plantagenet, a royal house of England, was founded in 1154 with the ascension of Henry II, who inherited the English throne through his mother, the Empress Matilda, and his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy. The marriage between Geoffrey and Matilda was the third attempt by Geoffrey's father, Fulk V, to build a political alliance with Normandy. The union of Geoffrey and Matilda produced a son, Henry II, who became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty. The royal line of the House of Plantagenet provided 14 kings, six of whom belonged to the cadet houses of Lancaster and York.

The Plantagenet period was marked by significant conflicts, including the Hundred Years' War between England and France, which began during the reign of Edward III. The War of the Roses, a long period of civil feuding, also commenced during the Plantagenet era, at the end of the reign of Richard II. The crown was disputed between two family strands, the Lancastrians and the Yorkists, for the next century.

The Plantagenet kings were often compelled to negotiate compromises, such as the Magna Carta, which restricted royal power in exchange for financial and military support. The reign of Henry II was marked by civil strife and conflicts with the nobility, including rebellions from his own sons, Richard I and John. John's defeat weakened his authority, and he was forced to agree to the Magna Carta in 1215. The official website of the British Monarchy considers John's death in 1216 as the end of the Angevin dynasty and the start of the Plantagenet dynasty.

The Plantagenet era witnessed the emergence of new social institutions and a distinct English culture. Parliament began to develop, and judicial reforms initiated during the reign of Henry II were continued and completed by Edward I. Culture also flourished, with three Plantagenet kings patronising Geoffrey Chaucer, considered the father of English poetry. The architectural style transitioned from Norman to Gothic, with examples including Salisbury Cathedral and a remodelled Westminster Abbey. The Plantagenet period also saw the establishment of the Franciscan and Dominican orders in England, as well as the founding of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

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The transition to constitutional monarchy

The Middle Ages

As early as the Middle Ages, the foundations of constitutional monarchy were being laid in England. The Anglo-Saxon kings, for example, relied on the king's council or witan for advice and to play a role in electing new monarchs. This indicated a recognition that the monarch's power was not absolute and that they were subject to certain constraints.

The Magna Carta

A significant step towards constitutional monarchy came in 1215 with the signing of the Magna Carta by King John. In this document, the king agreed to limit his powers and abide by certain rules and laws, demonstrating a shift towards a more constrained form of monarchy.

The English Civil War and the Interregnum

The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a conflict between the supporters of King Charles I, who sought to maintain the absolute power of the monarchy, and those who wanted to curb the king's powers or abolish the monarchy altogether. The Parliamentarians, who sought to establish a constitutional monarchy, ultimately defeated the Royalists. This led to the execution of Charles I, the abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of various forms of republican government during the Interregnum (1649-1660).

The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution

In 1660, the monarchy was restored with Charles II taking the throne. However, his brother, James II (1685-1688), sought to rule as an absolute monarch, appointing Catholics to powerful positions and disregarding the wishes of Parliament. This prompted a Protestant uprising, known as the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in James II fleeing into exile and handing power to his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange.

The Bill of Rights

In 1689, William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, cementing the transition to a constitutional monarchy. This document limited the powers of the monarch, established the importance of Parliament, and further defined the rights and liberties of English subjects.

The Reign of Queen Victoria

During the long reign of Queen Victoria, the final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made. By this time, the power of the monarchy had declined significantly, and the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. The expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament further solidified the constitutional nature of the monarchy.

The current monarch

As a constitutional monarchy, the United Kingdom's monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The reigning monarch is the country's head of state, but all political power rests with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the government and can only use their power according to laws enacted in Parliament and within the constraints of convention and precedent. The monarch and their family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, and representative duties.

The United Kingdom's transition to a constitutional monarchy occurred during the long reign of King William IV's successor, Queen Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted male-line succession, marking the end of the personal union between the United Kingdom and Hanover. The Victorian era witnessed significant cultural change, technological advancements, and the United Kingdom's emergence as a global power. In recognition of British rule in India, Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.

Queen Victoria's reign also saw a rise in support for the republican movement, partly due to her prolonged mourning and seclusion following her husband's death in 1861. Her son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. However, due to anti-German sentiment during World War I, the next monarch, George V, changed the name to the House of Windsor in 1917.

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