Isabella Carter
Athenian democracy, which developed around the 6th century BC, was a direct democracy made up of three important institutions: the ekklesia, or assembly; the boule, or council; and the dikasteria, or popular courts. While Athens is the most well-known of the democratic city-states in ancient Greece, it was not the only one, nor was it the first. The development of Athenian democracy was influenced by various figures, including Solon, Ephialtes, and notably Cleisthenes, who is often referred to as the Father of Democracy. Cleisthenes' reforms in the 5th century BC, such as the introduction of the system of ostracism and the abolition of political distinctions between aristocrats and the middle and working classes, are considered significant contributions to the establishment of Athenian democracy.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | c. 508-507 BCE |
| Founder | Cleisthenes |
| Alternative name | Isonomia |
| Previous system | Rule by Athenian aristocrats |
| Reform | Abolished political distinctions between the Athenian aristocrats and the middle- and working-class people |
| Reform | Set up an Ecclesia or Assembly, which was open to all male citizens |
| Reform | Established 139 demes, each organized into three groups called trittyes |
| Reform | Replaced the Council of 400 with a Council of 500 |
| Reform | Introduced sortition for selecting members of the boule |
| Reform | Ousted the tyrant Hippias |
| Reform | Freed debtors and no longer allowed borrowing on the security of one's own person |
| Reform | Gave every citizen the right to appeal the verdicts of magistrates before the assembly |
| Reform | Gave each free resident of Attica a political function |
| Reform | Established four property classes: the pentakosiomedimnoi, the hippeis, the zeugitai, and the thetes |
| Reform | Replaced the Areopagus with a criminal court for cases of homicide and sacrilege |
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What You'll Learn
Solon's economic and constitutional reforms
Solon, an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, political philosopher, and poet, is credited with laying the foundations for Athenian democracy through his economic and constitutional reforms. He is believed to have lived between 630 BCE and 560 BCE, and his reforms were instituted around 594 BCE, about 20 years after he served as the archon (annual chief ruler). Solon's reforms were aimed at addressing the social and
Solon's economic reforms, known as the "shaking off of burdens" or seisachtheia, focused on debt relief. He cancelled all debts, freed enslaved debtors, prohibited borrowing on the security of a person, and limited the amount of land an individual could own. Solon also encouraged the growth of Attica's trade and industry, forbidding the export of produce other than olive oil, minting new Athenian coinage, reforming weights and measures standards, and granting immigrant craftsmen citizenship. These measures strengthened the Athenian economy and reduced the burden on the poorer sections of society.
Solon's constitutional reforms replaced the existing government by birth aristocracy with a timocracy or plutocracy, where wealth played a significant role in political power. He divided Athenians into four classes based on annual agricultural output, census, and wealth: pentakosiomedimnoi, hippeis, zeugitae, and thetes. The pentakosiomedimnoi were the top class, determined by those with the highest agricultural output or those who owned property or estates that produced at least 500 medimnoi of goods annually. They held the highest political offices and could serve as generals. The hippeis were the second-highest class, followed by the zeugitae, who could hold minor political offices, and the thetes, who were the lowest class, including wage workers or those with less than 200 medimnoi as yearly income. Solon granted the lower assembly the right to hear appeals and created a higher assembly to reduce the power of the aristocratic Areopagus council.
In addition to economic and constitutional reforms, Solon also introduced judicial reforms. He replaced Draco's harsh laws with his legal code, except for those concerning homicide. Solon allowed any Athenian, not just the injured party, to initiate a lawsuit and provided a right of appeal against the decisions of magistrates. These reforms gave previously disenfranchised Athenians a voice in the government and empowered them to seek legal redress. Solon's reforms were a compromise between the revolutionaries and the landowners, and he is often referred to as "Solon the lawgiver" for his ability to balance the interests of both groups.
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Cleisthenes' reforms and demokratia
Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Greek city-state (or 'polis') of Athens, which comprised the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica. Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons (magistrates) and the council of the Areopagus, made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats.
Solon, the lawgiver, was appointed premier archon in 594 BC and began issuing economic and constitutional reforms to alleviate conflict arising from the inequities in Athenian society. He sought to break the influence of noble families by broadening the government's structure to include a wider range of property classes. Solon's reforms included establishing four property classes: the pentakosiomedimnoi, the hippeis, the zeugitai, and the thetes. He also set up an Ecclesia or Assembly, which was open to all male citizens. However, Solon was fundamentally aristocratic, and the old nobility thought he had gone too far, while the common people thought he had not gone far enough.
Cleisthenes, an Alcmaeonid, is credited with reforming the Athenian constitution and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. He is known as the "father of Athenian democracy". Cleisthenes returned to Athens in 508 BC after defeating Hippias with the help of Sparta and started implementing his reforms. He changed the basis of political organisation from family, clan, and phratry (kinship group) to the locality, or 'deme'. Ten new local tribes were formed to take the place of the four Ionic blood tribes, and, to make faction-building more difficult, Attica was divided into three areas: the city itself, the coast, and inland. Cleisthenes also abolished patronymics in favour of demonymics, increasing Athenians' sense of belonging to a deme. He created a Council of 500 in place of the Council of 400.
Through Cleisthenes' reforms, the people of Athens endowed their city with isonomic institutions—equal rights for all citizens (though only free men and women were citizens). He also established ostracism as a punishment. Cleisthenes' reforms were clearly designed to increase the people's power, and he can be described as a true democrat.
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Ephialtes' reduction of the Areopagus' powers
Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica. Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons (magistrates) and the council of the Areopagus, made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats.
In 462 BC, Ephialtes, together with the young Pericles, pushed through a decisive phase of reforms, namely an assault on the powers of the Areopagus. The Areopagus was a traditional court composed of former archons. Ephialtes weakened the prestige of the council and proposed a series of reforms that were passed in the popular assembly. These reforms divided the powers traditionally held by the Areopagus among the democratic council of the Boule, the ecclesia itself, and the popular courts.
The Areopagus retained a role as a high court, judging charges of murder and some religious matters, such as sacrilege. The jurisdiction of magistrates (archons) was curtailed, and they now conducted a preliminary hearing, with the main case going to a large popular jury. The authority to conduct inquiries into the qualifications and behaviour of archons was also taken away from the Areopagus and given to the Council of Five Hundred.
Ephialtes' reforms transformed how the political system in Athenian democracy worked, giving more power to other bodies, especially the courts. As a result, problems arose, such as secret balloting in the courts, where jurors could be bribed.
It is important to note that critics of democracy, such as Thucydides and Aristophanes, pointed out that proceedings were often dominated by an elite and that the people could be swayed by popular leaders or lack the knowledge to make informed decisions. Despite these criticisms, Athenian democracy was highly regarded, with a unique collective identity and pride in their system.
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Ostracism and exile
Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Greek city-state (polis) of Athens. It focused on supporting liberty, equality, and security. While Athens is the most well-known of the democratic city-states in ancient Greece, it was not the only one, nor was it the first. Solon, in 594 BC, and Cleisthenes, in 508–507 BC, were the key figures in the evolution of Athenian democracy.
Ostracism was a political process used in 5th-century BCE Athens, whereby those individuals considered too powerful or dangerous to the city were exiled for 10 years (later reduced to five) by popular vote. It was a pragmatic measure, serving as a preventive measure rather than a punitive one. The concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply, as the period of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. It was also a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or a potential tyrant. The decision to hold a vote on ostracism was presented to the popular assembly of Athens, the ekklesia, which met on the hill of Pnyx. Up to 6,000 male citizens voted to proceed or not. If agreed, a special meeting known as the ostracophoria was organized in the agora on a particular day in the eighth prytany in the year. Citizens gave the name of those they wished to be ostracized to a scribe, and these names were then scratched onto pottery shards, or ostraka. If 6,000 ostraka were turned up for a particular man, he had to go into exile.
The first ostracism vote took place in Athens around 487 BCE, and Hipparchus, son of Charmus, and related to the tyrant Hippias, was exiled. Megacles and Callias, son of Cratius, followed in the next two years. These early exiles were probably guilty of supporting Persia and opposing the increasingly democratic government in Athens. In 482 BCE, Aristides was voted in an ostracism and exiled from the city. In 471 BCE, the general and statesman Themistocles was also exiled. In 461 BCE, Cimon was exiled, and Pericles came to exercise influence. Kimon was also ostracized for ten years, but the Athenians did not long abide by their displeasure against him, and they recalled him from his exile.
Ostracism was the supreme example of the power of the ordinary people, the demos, to combat abuses of power in the Athenian democracy. It was also a way to prevent tyranny by a single individual. Ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increasing it. Although ten years of exile may have been challenging for Athenians, it was a lenient punishment compared to the sentences that courts could impose. When dealing with politicians held to be acting against the interests of the people, Athenian juries could inflict severe penalties such as death, unpayably large fines, confiscation of property, permanent exile, or loss of citizens' rights through atimia.
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Athens' coup and oligarchy
Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Greek city-state (or 'polis') of Athens. Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by archons (magistrates) and the council of the Areopagus, made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats.
Solon, appointed premier archon in 594 BC, began issuing economic and constitutional reforms to alleviate conflict arising from the inequities permeating Athenian society. He divided Athenians into four property-based classes, giving each free resident of Attica a political function and the right to participate in assembly meetings. However, most offices were restricted to the upper classes.
In 561 BC, the nascent democracy was overthrown by the tyrant Peisistratos, but it was reinstated after the expulsion of his son, Hippias, in 510 BC. Cleisthenes issued reforms in 508 and 507 BC that furthered democracy by undermining aristocratic domination and connecting every Athenian to the city's rule. He replaced the Council of 400 with a Council of 500, making it more difficult for influential families to build up power bases.
Despite these democratic reforms, Athens remained essentially aristocratic and plutocratic. The Areopagus retained significant power, and the people were slow to exercise their newfound authority.
In 462/1 BC, Ephialtes instigated the third set of reforms, reducing the Areopagus's powers to a criminal court for specific cases. However, in 413 BC, Athens suffered a disastrous defeat in the Sicilian campaign, creating a financial crisis. This setback opened the door for influential Athenian men who had long despised the broad-based democracy of their city-state to orchestrate a coup in 411 BC.
The Athenian coup of 411 BC, led by prominent and wealthy Athenians, overthrew the democratic government and replaced it with a short-lived oligarchy known as the Four Hundred. This oligarchy aimed to establish a government of the elite, believing they could better manage foreign, fiscal, and war policies. The coup was instigated by Alcibiades, who worked for the Spartans and promised to secure funds from the Persian satraps in western Anatolia if the democracy were overturned.
The new constitution established a council of 400 men who would choose 5,000 Athenians eligible to partake in assemblies. However, the oligarchs soon struggled with internal conflict, and the oligarchy was short-lived, lasting only four months before being replaced by a more democratic government.
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Frequently asked questions
Cleisthenes is often referred to as the 'Father of Democracy' due to his series of reforms that established democracy in Athens.
Cleisthenes' reforms included the institution of ostracism, which allowed citizens deemed a threat to democracy to be exiled, and the creation of the deme system, which balanced the unifying force of tyranny with the democratic concept of the people at the peak of political power. He also abolished political distinctions between aristocrats and the middle and working classes, and established three separate institutions: the ekklesia, the boule, and the dikasteria.
Solon, Ephialtes, and Theseus also contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Solon, for example, set up an Assembly open to all male citizens and made economic reforms to address inequities in Athenian society. Ephialtes reduced the powers of the Areopagus, and Theseus is credited with democratic reform in some ancient accounts.
Athenian democracy was a direct democracy, with all free male citizens allowed to participate in assembly meetings and make decisions about war and foreign policy. It was made up of three important institutions: the ekklesia, or Assembly, the boule, or Council of Five Hundred, and the dikasteria, or popular courts.
