The Constitution: Final Hurdles To Ratification

The road to the ratification of the US Constitution was a long and arduous process. The Constitutional Convention first met in Philadelphia in May 1787 to address the problems of the weak central government under the Articles of Confederation. The convention was led by Alexander Hamilton, who, along with James Madison and George Washington, believed that the young country was on the brink of collapse. The convention ended on September 17, 1787, when 38 delegates signed the new Constitution, agreeing that it would only come into effect once nine of the 13 states ratified it. The ratification campaign was a nail-biter, with Anti-Federalists fighting hard against the Constitution. The tide turned in Massachusetts, and the Constitution was finally ratified by the necessary number of states in 1789. However, it was not ratified by all states until May 29, 1790, when Rhode Island became the final state to approve the document.

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The Articles of Confederation

The final draft of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was completed on November 15, 1777. Consensus was achieved by including language guaranteeing that each state retained its sovereignty, leaving the matter of western land claims in the hands of the individual states, including language stating that votes in Congress would be en bloc by state, and establishing a unicameral legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers. The Articles of Confederation were submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process.

The Federalists and Anti-Federalists

The Federalists

The Federalists believed that a strong central government was necessary to address the nation's challenges and prevent its collapse. They argued that the Articles of Confederation, which gave the Confederation Congress the power to make rules and request funds from the states, lacked enforcement powers and was ineffective in regulating commerce or printing money. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and George Washington were key figures among the Federalists. They played a significant role in calling for a constitutional convention to revise the Articles of Confederation and create a new form of government.

To promote their cause, the Federalists produced "The Federalist Papers," a collection of 85 essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and John Jay. These essays explained and defended the proposed new government, addressing concerns about excessive federal power. They argued that the national government would only have the powers specifically granted to it and that the division of the government into separate branches with checks and balances would prevent any one branch or person from becoming too powerful.

The Anti-Federalists

The Anti-Federalists, on the other hand, fought against the ratification of the Constitution because they believed it created a powerful central government that resembled the one they had recently overthrown in the Revolutionary War. They were concerned about the concentration of power in the federal government and the lack of a bill of rights in the original draft of the Constitution. Elbridge Gerry, Edmund Randolph, and George Mason were among the early leaders of the Anti-Federalist movement, with Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee joining later.

The Anti-Federalists mobilized in state legislatures, particularly in Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York, making ratification contingent on the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. Their efforts led to the addition of the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed protections for certain basic liberties, such as freedom of speech, the right to a speedy trial, due process under the law, and protections against cruel and unusual punishments. The Anti-Federalists' collected writings, known as the "Anti-Federalist Papers," contributed significantly to American political history and the eventual creation of the Bill of Rights.

The Massachusetts Compromise

When efforts to ratify the Constitution encountered serious opposition in Massachusetts, two noted Anti-Federalists, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, helped negotiate a compromise. The Anti-Federalists agreed to support ratification, with the understanding that they would put forth recommendations for amendments should the document go into effect. This compromise, proposed by Hancock and supported by Adams, was called "ratify now, amend later".

On February 6, 1788, Massachusetts voted to ratify the Constitution unconditionally but offered amendments for the first Congress to consider. The vote was extremely close, with 187 for and 168 against. After the vote, eight delegates who had opposed the Constitution promised to work with their constituents to support it. Following this compromise, Massachusetts and four other states voted for ratification, following the Massachusetts model of recommending amendments along with their ratification.

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The first federal elections

The road to the first federal elections was not without its challenges. The ratification of the Constitution was a highly contested process, with Federalists and Anti-Federalists engaging in heated debates. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, advocated for a strong central government, while the Anti-Federalists opposed the creation of a powerful central authority, reminiscent of the one they had recently overthrown.

The ratification process required the approval of nine out of the 13 existing states. Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution on December 7, 1787, followed by Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut. The tide turned in favour of ratification in Massachusetts, where a "vote now, amend later" compromise was reached. This eventually led to the ratification of the Constitution by the remaining states, with New Hampshire becoming the ninth state to ratify on June 21, 1788.

Rhode Island's approval

The ratification of the US Constitution was a long and arduous process. The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, which took place between May and September 1787, addressed the weaknesses of the central government under the Articles of Confederation. The new Constitution established a federal government with more specific powers, including the ability to conduct foreign relations.

Rhode Island, however, did not send any delegates to the Constitutional Convention in 1787, making it the only state not represented. The state's legislature rejected 11 attempts to ratify the Constitution between September 1787 and January 1790. Rhode Island's resistance was due to concerns about the centralisation of power and the Constitution's failure to explicitly protect religious freedom, a core principle of the state. Additionally, the Constitution would have made the state's practice of printing paper money illegal.

Fearing reprisals from the other 12 states that had ratified the Constitution, Rhode Island eventually convened a convention and ratified the document on May 29, 1790, by a close vote of 34 to 32. This marked the final step in the ratification process, as Rhode Island was the last state to approve the Constitution.

The journey to achieving a fully ratified Constitution was challenging, but it laid the foundation for the United States government, which has endured and evolved since 1789.

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