The Ottoman Empire's Liberal Constitution: Who Made It Happen?

The Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire, was an imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries. During the 19th century, the empire underwent a period of reform and modernization known as the Tanzimat, which included a series of constitutional reforms. The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire began in 1876 with the establishment of a liberal constitution, which was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha. This constitution offered freedoms and liberties to all subjects, regardless of their religion, and marked a significant step towards political reform and the modernization of state institutions. However, the First Constitutional Era was short-lived, and the sultan suspended the constitution in 1878. The Second Constitutional Era began in 1908 with the Young Turk Revolution, which restored the 1876 constitution and brought multi-party democracy to the empire for the first time.

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The Young Turks

During the Second Constitutional Era, the Young Turks' efforts led to the restoration of the 1876 constitution, which had been suspended by Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1878. The 1876 constitution was significant because it guaranteed liberties for all subjects, including freedom of the press and the right to education. It also established a two-stage electoral system and multi-party politics, allowing for the emergence of political parties such as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and the Freedom and Accord Party.

The CUP, a faction within the Young Turks, played a crucial role in advocating for orderly reform under a strong central government. They promoted industrialization, administrative reforms, and the secularization of the legal system. The CUP also provided subsidies for women's education and made alterations to the administrative structure of state-operated primary schools. However, the CUP's leadership became increasingly radicalized during World War I, and they were responsible for ethnic cleansing and genocide against Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens.

Overall, the Young Turks played a pivotal role in shaping the political landscape of the Ottoman Empire during its final years. They ushered in an era of constitutional monarchy, multi-party democracy, and social reforms. Despite the eventual dissolution of the empire, the ideals and efforts of the Young Turks left a lasting impact on the region's history and the emergence of the modern Turkish nation-state.

Midhat Pasha

The Ottoman Empire's first and only constitution was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Midhat Pasha was a prominent figure during the Tanzimat period, a time of modernisation and reform in the Ottoman Empire. He was well-respected in Europe and advocated for an empire where "there would be neither Muslim nor non-Muslim but only Ottomans". This ideology inspired groups such as the Young Ottomans and the Committee of Union and Progress, who sought to bring about concrete reform and progress.

The constitution was written in Ottoman Turkish with Perso-Arabic script and was simultaneously published in multiple languages, including "Oriental-style" and "Western-style" versions to accommodate the empire's diverse population. The period following its implementation, known as the First Constitutional Era (1876-1878), marked a significant step towards modernisation and reform. However, it was short-lived, as Sultan Abdul Hamid II suspended the constitution in 1878.

Despite the setback, Midhat Pasha's legacy continued to influence the empire. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908, led by reformists known as the Young Turks, resulted in the Second Constitutional Era. During this period, the 1876 constitution was restored, and multi-party democracy was introduced. The ideals of liberty and reform that Midhat Pasha championed continued to shape the political landscape of the Ottoman Empire, even during its twilight years.

Overall, Midhat Pasha played a pivotal role in providing the Ottoman Empire with a liberal constitution. His vision of a unified Ottoman identity, regardless of religious differences, and his commitment to reform laid the foundation for a more modern and harmonious empire. While the implementation of the constitution faced challenges, it represented a significant milestone in the Ottoman Empire's history and reflected Midhat Pasha's enduring impact.

Foreign influence

The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, which lasted from 1876 to 1878, was influenced by foreign powers in several ways. Firstly, the constitution itself was modelled on European examples, particularly the constitutions of Belgium and Prussia (1850). The Ottoman Empire had long been influenced by Europe, and this was reflected in the content of the constitution, which aimed to address European pressure regarding the discrimination of religious minorities. The constitution made all subjects Ottomans under the law, granting everyone, regardless of religion, certain liberties such as freedom of the press and free education. However, Islam remained the recognised state religion.

During their studies in Europe, members of the new Ottoman elite observed the political organisations of European countries and concluded that constitutional government could serve as a check on autocracy. This belief influenced the push for a written constitution in the Ottoman Empire. The constitution was also translated into multiple languages, including "Oriental-style" and "Western-style" versions, indicating a recognition of the diverse populations within the Empire and a desire to reach all subjects.

The Second Constitutional Era, which began in 1908 with the Young Turk Revolution, also demonstrated the influence of foreign powers. The Young Turks movement included Ottoman exiles who had lived in other countries and advocated for a constitutional government to replace the absolute monarchy. The Young Turks opposed the rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and forced him to restore the liberal constitution of 1876. This era brought multi-party democracy to the Ottoman Empire for the first time, with the emergence of parties such as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and the Freedom and Accord Party. The CUP promoted administrative reforms, industrialization, and the secularization of the legal system, reflecting influences from Europe. However, they also sought to avoid excessive reliance on European conglomerates and non-Muslim bankers during this modernization process.

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Secularisation

The Ottoman Empire was an imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries. During the 19th century, the empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. This period also marked the beginning of the Tanzimat period of modernisation, during which the government introduced a series of constitutional reforms. These reforms led to a modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, and the replacement of religious law with secular law.

The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire lasted from 1876 to 1878. The constitution, written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, represented a significant step towards equality for all Ottoman subjects, regardless of their religion. It guaranteed liberties such as freedom of the press and free education, and all subjects were considered Ottomans under the law. The constitution also reaffirmed the equality of all Ottoman subjects, including their right to serve in the new Chamber of Deputies.

The Second Constitutional Era, which began after the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era restored the 1876 constitution and brought multi-party politics to the Ottoman Parliament. The Young Turks movement, which included the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), opposed the rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and called for a restoration of the constitutional monarchy. The CUP promoted a program of orderly reform, industrialisation, and administrative reforms, including the secularisation of the legal system.

During the Second Constitutional Era, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I as an ally of Germany. The empire's defeat and occupation by the Allied Powers resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories. The successful Turkish War of Independence against the Allies led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate.

The Tanzimat period

During the Tanzimat period, the Ottoman Empire underwent a series of constitutional reforms that led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, and the replacement of religious law with a secular legal system. The reforms included the development of a new secular school system, the reorganization of the army based on the Prussian conscript system, the creation of provincial representative assemblies, and the introduction of new codes of commercial and criminal law, largely modelled after those of France. The Tanzimat period also saw the establishment of the Ministry of Trade and Agriculture in 1839, the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes in 1840, and the establishment of the Ministry of Post and the first post offices of the empire in 1840.

The Tanzimat's legacy remains contested. Some historians credit it with establishing a powerful national government, while others argue it accelerated imperial fragmentation. The reforms faced resistance from conservative clerics, exacerbated ethnic tensions in the Balkans, and saddled the empire with crippling foreign debt. Despite these challenges, the Tanzimat reforms succeeded in laying the groundwork for the gradual modernization of the Ottoman state.

The First Constitutional Era, from 1876 to 1878, marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernize state institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. However, this period became the story of the empire's struggle. The constitution was written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. It was in effect from 1876 to 1878 and again from 1908 to 1922, during the Second Constitutional Era, which began after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908.

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