Jonah Patel
The origins of political Islam, also known as Islamism, can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when Muslim scholars and activists began to respond to the challenges posed by Western colonialism and the decline of the Ottoman Empire. One of the key figures often credited with laying the groundwork for political Islam is Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, a pan-Islamist thinker who advocated for Islamic unity and resistance against foreign domination. However, the movement gained significant momentum with the work of Hasan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt in 1928, which sought to Islamize society and politics. Another pivotal figure is Sayyid Qutb, whose writings, particularly *Milestones*, provided a radical ideological framework for Islamist movements, emphasizing the establishment of an Islamic state governed by Sharia law. These thinkers and organizations collectively shaped the ideology and strategies of political Islam, which has since evolved into a diverse and global phenomenon with varying interpretations and goals.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Originator | The concept of "Political Islam" is not attributed to a single individual but emerged as a collective ideological movement. |
| Historical Roots | Traces back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influenced by Islamic revivalist thinkers like Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and Rashid Rida. |
| Key Figures | Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928), Sayyid Qutb (prominent ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood), and Ruhollah Khomeini (leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution). |
| Core Ideology | Seeks to establish Islamic governance based on Sharia law, often in opposition to secular or Western-influenced political systems. |
| Global Spread | Gained prominence in the mid-20th century, with movements and organizations across the Muslim world, including the Muslim Brotherhood, Jamaat-e-Islami, and Hezbollah. |
| Modern Influence | Continues to shape political movements and governments in countries like Iran, Turkey, and parts of the Arab world, with varying interpretations and implementations. |
| Controversies | Often associated with extremism and terrorism by critics, though many adherents advocate for non-violent political participation. |
| Diverse Interpretations | Encompasses a wide range of ideologies, from moderate reformist movements to radical revolutionary groups. |
| Response to Colonialism | Largely a reaction to Western colonialism and the perceived decline of Islamic civilization, aiming to restore Islamic political and cultural dominance. |
| Contemporary Relevance | Remains a significant force in global politics, influencing elections, social policies, and international relations in Muslim-majority countries. |
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What You'll Learn
- Early Islamic Caliphate: Origins of Islamic governance under Prophet Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs
- Colonial Resistance: Islamic movements as responses to European imperialism in the 19th century
- Maududi & Pakistan: Abul Ala Maududi's role in founding modern political Islam in South Asia
- Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Khomeini's 1979 revolution and Shia political Islam's global impact
- Muslim Brotherhood: Hassan al-Banna's founding and its influence on Sunni political movements
Early Islamic Caliphate: Origins of Islamic governance under Prophet Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs
The concept of political Islam finds its roots in the early Islamic Caliphate, which emerged under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad and was further developed by the Rashidun Caliphs. Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, not only served as a religious leader but also established the first Islamic state in Medina in 622 CE. This marked the beginning of Islamic governance, where religious and political authority were intertwined. In Medina, Muhammad drafted the Constitution of Medina, a document that outlined the rights and responsibilities of the Muslim community (Ummah) and established a framework for governance. This constitution is often regarded as one of the earliest examples of a written legal and political system in Islamic history, blending religious principles with practical governance.
Under Prophet Muhammad's leadership, the Islamic state expanded through both peaceful and military means, unifying the Arabian Peninsula under a single political and religious authority. Muhammad's role as a statesman included administering justice, organizing military campaigns, and managing diplomatic relations with neighboring tribes and states. His governance was characterized by the application of Islamic principles, such as justice, equality, and consultation (shura), which became foundational for later Islamic political thought. Upon his death in 632 CE, the question of succession arose, leading to the establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first era of Islamic political leadership after Muhammad.
The Rashidun Caliphs—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali—continued the model of governance initiated by Prophet Muhammad, though each brought unique approaches to leadership. Abu Bakr, the first caliph, was chosen through a consultative process, emphasizing the principle of shura. His reign focused on consolidating the Islamic state and suppressing the Ridda (apostasy) wars, which threatened the unity of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, institutionalized Islamic governance by establishing administrative systems, including a judiciary and a tax system based on Islamic law (Sharia). His reforms laid the groundwork for the efficient administration of the rapidly expanding Islamic empire.
Uthman ibn Affan, the third caliph, oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a standardized text, a critical step in unifying the religious and political identity of the Ummah. However, his reign was marked by growing discontent over nepotism and centralization of power, leading to his assassination. Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, faced internal strife, including the First Fitna (civil war), which highlighted the challenges of maintaining unity in the Islamic state. Despite these conflicts, Ali's emphasis on justice and piety reinforced the ideal of righteous leadership in Islamic governance.
The Rashidun Caliphate set the precedent for Islamic political leadership, blending religious authority with administrative pragmatism. The principles of shura, justice, and adherence to Sharia became central to the concept of Islamic governance. While the Rashidun era ended with Ali's assassination in 661 CE, its legacy profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic political systems, including the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. The early Islamic Caliphate under Prophet Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs thus laid the foundation for political Islam, demonstrating how religious principles could be applied to the practical governance of a state.
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Colonial Resistance: Islamic movements as responses to European imperialism in the 19th century
The rise of political Islam in the 19th century is deeply intertwined with the resistance to European imperialism, as Muslim societies grappled with the encroachment of colonial powers on their lands, cultures, and sovereignty. European imperialism, driven by economic exploitation, territorial expansion, and the spread of Christian influence, posed an existential threat to Islamic societies. In response, Islamic movements emerged as a form of resistance, blending religious revivalism with political mobilization to counter colonial domination. These movements were not merely religious but also political, as they sought to protect Islamic identity, restore Islamic governance, and reclaim autonomy from foreign powers.
One of the earliest and most influential examples of this resistance was the Wahhabi movement in the Arabian Peninsula, led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud in the 18th century, but its impact continued into the 19th century. The Wahhabis sought to purify Islam by returning to its foundational texts and rejecting practices they deemed heretical. This movement gained political momentum by challenging the Ottoman Empire’s influence and later resisting Egyptian and European encroachment. The Wahhabi-Saudi alliance demonstrated how Islamic revivalism could serve as a tool for political resistance and state-building in the face of external threats.
In South Asia, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, often referred to as the First War of Independence, highlighted the role of Islamic leadership in resisting British colonial rule. While the rebellion was a diverse movement involving Hindus and Muslims, Islamic scholars and leaders played a significant role in mobilizing resistance. Figures like Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, and various Sufi leaders framed the struggle as a defense of Islamic values and sovereignty against British imperialism. The rebellion, though ultimately suppressed, underscored the fusion of religious and political resistance in the face of colonial oppression.
In North Africa, the Sanusi movement, founded by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi in the mid-19th century, combined religious reform with anti-colonial resistance. The Sanusis established zawiyas (religious lodges) across the Sahara and Sahel regions, which served as centers of learning, social welfare, and political organization. During the Italian and French colonial invasions of Libya and Algeria, the Sanusi order led armed resistance, emphasizing the defense of Islamic territories and communities. This movement exemplified how Islamic institutions could become focal points for organizing resistance against European imperialism.
The Mahdi movement in Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmad in the late 19th century, was another powerful example of Islamic resistance to colonialism. Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi (guided one) and called for a jihad against the Turco-Egyptian rulers, who were seen as collaborators with British interests. The movement culminated in the establishment of the Mahdist State in 1885, which resisted British colonial ambitions until its fall in 1898. The Mahdi movement demonstrated the potential of eschatological and messianic ideas within Islam to inspire mass mobilization against foreign domination.
These movements collectively illustrate how Islamic revivalism and political resistance were intertwined in the 19th century as a response to European imperialism. They were not merely defensive reactions but also proactive efforts to redefine Islamic identity and governance in the face of colonial challenges. The legacy of these movements laid the groundwork for the development of political Islam in the 20th century, as later generations continued to draw on these traditions to resist colonialism and assert Islamic autonomy in a rapidly changing world.
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Maududi & Pakistan: Abul Ala Maududi's role in founding modern political Islam in South Asia
Abul Ala Maududi (1903–1979) is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the founding of modern political Islam, particularly in South Asia. His ideas and activism laid the groundwork for the fusion of religion and politics, a hallmark of political Islam. Born in Aurangabad, India, Maududi emerged as a prominent Islamic thinker during the tumultuous period of the Indian subcontinent's partition in 1947. His vision of an Islamic state, governed by Sharia law, resonated deeply in the newly created nation of Pakistan, where he sought to shape its ideological and political trajectory.
Maududi's intellectual contributions were centered around his belief that Islam was not merely a religion but a comprehensive way of life, encompassing politics, economics, and social governance. In 1941, he founded Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), a political party dedicated to establishing an Islamic state in South Asia. After the creation of Pakistan, Maududi relocated to the new nation, viewing it as a fertile ground for his ideology. He argued that Pakistan's existence was not just a political achievement but a divine opportunity to implement Islamic principles in governance. Through JI, Maududi sought to transform Pakistan into a model Islamic state, rejecting secularism and Western influences.
Maududi's role in Pakistan was both ideological and practical. He authored numerous books and pamphlets, including *Towards Understanding Islam* and *The Islamic Law and Constitution*, which became foundational texts for political Islam. His writings emphasized the concept of *Hakimiyya* (the sovereignty of God), asserting that only divine law, not human-made laws, should govern society. Maududi's critique of Western democracy and capitalism further solidified his stance that Islam offered a superior alternative. In Pakistan, he actively campaigned against the secular policies of leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah and later, Ayub Khan, advocating instead for an Islamic system.
Despite facing imprisonment and opposition from both secularists and traditionalist Islamic scholars, Maududi's influence grew steadily. Jamaat-e-Islami became a significant political force, particularly in intellectual and urban circles. Maududi's ideas inspired future generations of Islamists, not only in Pakistan but across the Muslim world. His emphasis on the Islamic state as the ultimate goal of political struggle became a cornerstone of modern political Islam. While Pakistan never fully adopted his vision, Maududi's legacy is evident in the enduring presence of Islamist movements and the ongoing debate over the role of religion in governance.
In conclusion, Abul Ala Maududi's role in founding modern political Islam in South Asia, particularly through his work in Pakistan, is undeniable. His establishment of Jamaat-e-Islami, his prolific writings, and his unwavering advocacy for an Islamic state made him a pioneering figure in the global Islamist movement. Maududi's ideas continue to shape political discourse in Pakistan and beyond, cementing his place as a key architect of political Islam in the 20th century.
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Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Khomeini's 1979 revolution and Shia political Islam's global impact
The Iranian Revolution of 1979, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, marked a pivotal moment in the history of political Islam, particularly for Shia Muslims. Khomeini’s revolution was not merely a national uprising against the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, but a transformative movement that sought to establish an Islamic state governed by Shia jurisprudence (Velayat-e Faqih). This system, which places ultimate political and religious authority in the hands of a Shia cleric, became the foundation of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Khomeini’s vision was to create a government that was both theocratic and revolutionary, challenging Western influence and secular governance in the Muslim world. His success in overthrowing the Shah and instituting this model made him a central figure in the creation and global dissemination of Shia political Islam.
Khomeini’s revolution had a profound impact on Shia communities worldwide, inspiring them to assert their political and religious identity in regions where they were often marginalized. In countries like Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain, and Pakistan, Shia Muslims began to organize politically, drawing inspiration from Iran’s model of Islamic governance. Hezbollah in Lebanon, for instance, emerged as a powerful Shia political and military force, closely aligned with Iran’s revolutionary ideology. Similarly, Shia political parties in Iraq gained prominence after the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, with many looking to Iran as a model for integrating religion and politics. Khomeini’s revolution thus catalyzed a global Shia awakening, positioning Iran as the epicenter of Shia political Islam.
The Iranian Revolution also reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East, challenging the dominance of Sunni-led states and their Western allies. Khomeini’s anti-imperialist and anti-Zionist rhetoric resonated across the Muslim world, transcending sectarian boundaries and appealing to a broader audience disillusioned with secular and pro-Western regimes. The revolution’s emphasis on self-determination and resistance to foreign influence inspired movements beyond Shia communities, including Sunni Islamist groups like the Muslim Brotherhood. However, it also deepened sectarian tensions, as Sunni-majority states like Saudi Arabia viewed Iran’s rising influence as a threat to their authority, leading to increased competition and conflict in the region.
Globally, Khomeini’s revolution introduced a new paradigm for political Islam, distinct from the Sunni Islamist movements that had dominated the discourse until then. While Sunni political Islam often focused on the establishment of Sharia law within existing state structures, Khomeini’s model sought to create an entirely new system of governance rooted in Shia theology. This approach emphasized the role of the clergy in political leadership and the concept of the Islamic state as a vehicle for social justice and anti-imperialist struggle. The revolution’s global impact was further amplified through Iran’s support for Shia and other Islamist movements, as well as its cultural and ideological outreach, including the export of its revolutionary ideals through media, education, and religious institutions.
In conclusion, Ayatollah Khomeini’s 1979 revolution was a defining moment in the creation and global spread of Shia political Islam. By establishing the Islamic Republic of Iran, Khomeini provided a blueprint for Shia political activism and governance that resonated far beyond Iran’s borders. The revolution’s emphasis on religious authority, anti-imperialism, and social justice inspired Shia communities worldwide to assert their political identity and challenged the existing geopolitical order in the Middle East. While it deepened sectarian divisions, it also expanded the discourse on political Islam, offering an alternative vision to Sunni-dominated narratives. Khomeini’s legacy continues to shape the dynamics of Shia political Islam and its global impact, cementing his role as a key figure in the creation of modern political Islam.
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Muslim Brotherhood: Hassan al-Banna's founding and its influence on Sunni political movements
The concept of "Political Islam" as a modern ideological movement finds one of its most significant roots in the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood by Hassan al-Banna in 1928. Al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher and Islamic activist, established the organization in response to the decline of the Islamic Caliphate, the rise of secular nationalism, and the increasing Western influence in the Muslim world. His vision was to revive Islam as a comprehensive way of life, encompassing not only religious practice but also political, social, and economic systems. The Muslim Brotherhood, formally known as *Jamāʻat al-Ikhwān al-Muslimīn*, became the cornerstone of Sunni political Islam, advocating for the establishment of an Islamic state governed by Sharia law.
Hassan al-Banna's ideology was grounded in the belief that Islam had been marginalized by colonial powers and secular elites, and that its restoration required a grassroots movement. He emphasized the importance of education, social welfare, and activism to mobilize the Muslim masses. The Brotherhood's motto, *"Allah is our objective. The Prophet is our leader. The Qur’an is our law. Jihad is our way. Dying in the way of Allah is our highest hope,"* encapsulated its mission. Al-Banna's approach was pragmatic, blending traditional Islamic teachings with modern organizational techniques, which allowed the Brotherhood to grow rapidly across Egypt and later throughout the Muslim world.
The Muslim Brotherhood's influence on Sunni political movements has been profound and far-reaching. Al-Banna's emphasis on Islam as a political ideology inspired countless organizations and leaders across the globe. Groups such as Hamas in Palestine, Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia, and various Islamist parties in the Middle East and North Africa trace their ideological lineage back to the Brotherhood. Al-Banna's teachings on the integration of religion and politics, the importance of grassroots mobilization, and the rejection of Western secularism became central tenets of Sunni political Islam. His legacy is evident in the way these movements frame their struggles as a defense of Islamic identity against perceived Western imperialism and cultural domination.
One of the key aspects of the Muslim Brotherhood's influence is its adaptability. While al-Banna's original vision was rooted in Egyptian and Arab contexts, the movement's principles were easily adapted to diverse cultural and political landscapes. This flexibility allowed the Brotherhood's ideology to resonate with Sunni Muslims in countries as varied as Indonesia, Turkey, and Nigeria. However, this adaptability also led to internal divisions and varying interpretations of al-Banna's teachings, with some factions adopting more radical approaches while others pursued gradualist, reformist strategies.
Despite facing repression and bans in many countries, the Muslim Brotherhood remains a significant force in Sunni political Islam. Its enduring influence is a testament to Hassan al-Banna's vision and organizational genius. By framing Islam as a solution to societal problems and a means of political empowerment, al-Banna laid the groundwork for a movement that continues to shape the political and religious landscape of the Muslim world. The Brotherhood's legacy underscores the central role of its founder in the creation and development of Political Islam as a modern phenomenon.
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Frequently asked questions
Political Islam, as a modern ideological movement, does not have a single founder. However, figures like Hassan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928, and Sayyid Qutb, a prominent ideologue of the same organization, are often credited with shaping its foundational principles.
Political Islam emerged primarily in Egypt with the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood, but it has since spread across the Muslim world. Its ideas were influenced by broader Islamic revivalist movements and responses to colonialism and Western influence.
No, Political Islam is not a monolithic movement. It encompasses diverse groups, parties, and ideologies across different countries, each with its own leaders and interpretations of Islamic governance.
