Isabella Carter
The Inca Empire, also known as the Tawantinsuyo or Tahuantinsuyu, meaning 'Land of the Four Quarters' or 'The Four Parts Together', was conquered by Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers in the 16th century. Pizarro first reached Inca territory in 1526 and received permission from the Queen of Spain to conquer the land in 1529. With an army of only a few hundred men, superior weaponry, and aid from locals, Pizarro and his forces swiftly dominated the Inca Empire, executing its leader Atahualpa and installing a puppet emperor. The conquest of the Inca Empire was facilitated by internal divisions within the empire, the ritualised nature of Inca warfare, and the psychological impact of the Spanish cavalry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Leader of the conquistadors | Francisco Pizarro |
| Number of conquistadors | 168 |
| Year of first contact with the Inca Empire | 1526 |
| Year of conquest | 1532 |
| Year of the fall of the last Inca stronghold | 1572 |
| Weapons used by the conquistadors | Guns, steel swords, horses, dogs, metal armour, cannons, and firearms |
| Weapons used by the Incas | Clubs, bows and arrows, bronze or bone-tipped spears, wooden slings and stones, stone or copper-headed battle axes |
| Armour used by the conquistadors | Metal armour |
| Armour used by the Incas | Shields and armour made of cotton, hides, palm, wood, and metal discs |
| Advantage for the conquistadors | Superior weapons and armour, use of cavalry, and assistance from locals |
| Advantage for the Incas | Home terrain, use of guerilla tactics |
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What You'll Learn
Pizarro's small force of conquistadors
The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro is known for conquering the Inca Empire with a small force of around 168 to 180 conquistadors. Pizarro's force was not made up of professional soldiers, but they were armed with the most advanced weapons in the world at the time, including steel, guns, swords, cannons, and horses. Horses, in particular, gave the Spanish a significant advantage as the Incans had no equivalent and had never seen them before. The psychological impact of the cavalry's manoeuvrability and efficiency was devastating for the Incan fighters.
Pizarro's first two expeditions to Peru ended in failure due to bad weather, lack of food, and skirmishes with hostile natives. However, in 1529, he obtained permission from the Spanish Monarchy to conquer Peru and set sail on his third and successful expedition. Pizarro was aided by the timing of his invasion, as the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa, which had weakened the empire and divided the people's loyalties.
When Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1531, he found that the Inca Empire had been further devastated by diseases brought by earlier Spanish contacts. He formed an alliance with native groups who were under the oppression of the Inca Empire, including the Huancas, Chankas, Cañaris, and Chachapoyas, and included them among his troops.
In November 1532, Pizarro and his force of around 180 men trapped and ambushed Inca emperor Atahualpa and a group of unarmed or poorly armed escorts in the small town of Cajamarca. Pizarro's men massacred the Incas and captured Atahualpa, forcing him to convert to Christianity before eventually executing him. By 1533, Pizarro had conquered the Inca capital of Cuzco and installed a puppet emperor, effectively bringing an end to the Inca Empire and marking the beginning of European colonisation of South America.
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Superior weapons and tactics
The Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro were armed with the most advanced weapons technology in the world at the time. The conquistadors' steel weapons easily cut through the Incas' armour, which was made of cotton, hides, palm, wood, and metal discs. The Incas' weapons, on the other hand, were largely ineffective against the Spaniards' metal armour.
The Spaniards' use of cavalry also gave them a significant advantage. Horses were unknown to the Incas, and the psychological impact of the cavalry's manoeuvrability and efficiency was highly detrimental to the Inca fighters.
In addition to their superior weapons and armour, the Spaniards also had firearms, cannons, and dogs on their side. The Incas' mode of warfare was also highly ritualised, and they were unaccustomed to the Spaniards' tactics of deceit, ambush, and subterfuge. They were also highly dependent on their officers, and the loss of these individuals in battle could lead to a quick collapse and panicked retreat.
The Incas did adapt and learn to fight back against the Spaniards, employing tactics such as fighting on rough terrain or flooding areas under attack to neutralise the cavalry. However, their weapons, which included spears, slings, clubs, bows and arrows, and stone or copper-headed battle axes, were ultimately no match for the Spaniards' guns, crossbows, and swords.
The Spaniards were also aided by the internal problems within the Inca Empire, such as the war of succession between Atahualpa and Huáscar, which weakened the empire and made it more vulnerable to external attack.
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Civil war and disease
The conquest of the Inca Empire was aided by a civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar, the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, and unrest among newly conquered territories. Atahualpa was based in the north in Quito with the main body of the Inca army, while Huáscar controlled the capital of Cuzco and the large territory to the south, including the area around Lake Titicaca. Atahualpa was more popular with the people and was valued more by the army. The civil war weakened the empire immediately prior to its struggle with the Spanish conquistadors.
The civil war was sparked by the death of Huayna Capac from a European-introduced disease, probably smallpox, in 1528. His designated heir, Ninan Cuyuchic, also died from the disease, leaving no named successor. Huayna Capac's death set off a war of succession between his sons, with Atahualpa claiming legitimacy due to his proximity to and good relations with the army, and Huáscar having himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco.
The civil war, along with the high mortality from disease and the superior military technology of the conquistadors, weakened the empire to the point that it was unable to defeat the Spanish in the long term. The first epidemic of European disease in the Inca Empire was probably in the 1520s, killing Huayna Capac, his designated heir, and a large number of other Inca subjects. Diseases such as smallpox, influenza, typhus, and measles had spread from Central America by the time the conquistadors returned to Peru in 1532.
The Inca Empire was also weakened by the communication and cultural divide between its various territories. The Spaniards took advantage of this divide by forming bonds with the natives who were under the oppression of the Inca Empire and including them among their troops.
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Cavalry and metal armour
The Incan Empire was conquered by Francisco Pizarro and his Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. The Incas were vulnerable to the Spaniards' superior military technology, which included horses, dogs, metal armour, swords, cannons, and firearms. The Incas, on the other hand, lacked cavalry and artillery, and did not have iron or steel weapons and armour.
Inca warriors were skilled in hand-to-hand combat and were deadly accurate with projectile weapons. They were protected by shields and armour made of cotton, hides, palm, wood, and metal discs, which were effective against spears and arrows while being light enough to allow for high mobility. However, this armour was no match for Spanish steel weapons and firearms.
The Incas' cotton armour was densely woven and could repel spears and arrows almost as well as metal armour. This type of armour is similar to the concept used in modern body armour, where synthetic fabrics like Kevlar provide protection while being lighter and more flexible than metal.
The lack of cavalry and metal armour on the Inca side was a significant disadvantage. Horses were completely foreign to the Incas, and they had no animals that could be ridden into battle. Pizarro's force included only a small cavalry of about 37 horses, but the psychological impact of their manoeuvrability and efficiency was devastating for the Inca fighters. The conquistadors' metal armour also rendered Incan weapons largely ineffective.
In conclusion, the Spanish conquest of the Incan Empire was facilitated by their superior military technology, including cavalry and metal armour, which the Incas lacked. The Incas' cotton armour and lack of mounted warfare placed them at a significant disadvantage against the Spanish conquistadors.
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Native alliances
The conquest of the Inca Empire was facilitated by a number of factors, including advanced military technology, the element of surprise, and the effective use of diplomacy and alliances.
The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of diverse languages, cultures, and peoples. While the empire was vast, the components were not uniformly loyal, and local cultures were not fully integrated. The Inca rulers used a combination of diplomacy, trade agreements, and military conquest to bring together these diverse groups.
Pachacuti, for example, sent spies to gather intelligence on regions he wanted to bring into his empire. He then sent messages to their leaders, offering gifts and promising the benefits of joining his empire. Most rulers acquiesced peacefully, but those who refused were met with military force. The children of these rulers were then brought to Cuzco, the capital, to learn about Inca administration systems before returning to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the nobility and foster alliances through marriage.
The Inca Empire itself was the result of the conquest and assimilation of smaller ayllus, or chiefdoms, through political alliances and military campaigns. The Inca Civil War between Atahualpa and Huascar, two sons of the emperor, also weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to external conquest.
When Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors arrived, they formed bonds with native groups who were under the oppression of the Inca Empire, including the Huancas, Chankas, Cañaris, and Chachapoyas. These natives joined the Spaniards in their fight against the Incas, providing invaluable knowledge of the land and serving as guides and allies.
The Spaniards' military technology, including steel weapons, firearms, and cavalry, proved to be far superior to that of the Incas, who were armed with clubs, bows and arrows, spears, slings, and stone or copper-headed axes. The Spaniards' metal armour also rendered Incan weapons largely ineffective, and the psychological impact of cavalry on the Incas was enormously debilitating.
Thus, the conquest of the Inca Empire was achieved through a combination of military force, surprise, advanced technology, and the formation of native alliances.
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Frequently asked questions
The Inca Empire was conquered by the Spanish, led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers, who were granted permission by the Queen of Spain to conquer the region.
The Spanish conquistadors were armed with superior weapons and military technology, including guns, steel, swords, and cavalry, which gave them a significant advantage over the Incas, whose weapons were less effective against Spanish armour.
The Inca Empire was already weakened by internal problems, such as a civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar, and a war of succession, which divided the empire and made it more vulnerable to external attacks. The Spanish exploited these divisions and formed alliances with native groups who were oppressed by the Inca Empire, using them in their army against the Incas.
