Omar Bennett
Gunboat diplomacy is a form of hegemony, an aggressive foreign policy, or diplomatic activity, carried out with the implicit or explicit use of military power, usually naval, to imply a threat of warfare and force cooperation. The term is most closely associated with US President Theodore Roosevelt and his Big Stick ideology, which was used to justify military occupations of Cuba in 1906, Nicaragua in 1912, and Veracruz, Mexico in 1914.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name | Gunboat Diplomacy |
| Definition | Any aggressive diplomatic activity carried out with the implicit or explicit use of military (usually naval) power |
| Synonyms | Big Stick Diplomacy |
| Origin | The term "gunboat diplomacy" comes from the nineteenth-century period of imperialism |
| First Used By | President Theodore Roosevelt |
| Examples | Roosevelt's "Great White Fleet" in 1909; US Army's occupation of Veracruz in 1914 |
| Current Usage | The US Navy's presence at over 450 bases around the world; continued use by virtually all presidents since Woodrow Wilson |
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What You'll Learn
Theodore Roosevelt's 'Big Stick' diplomacy
Gunboat diplomacy is a form of hegemony, which involves the use of highly visible displays of military power, usually naval, to imply a threat of warfare and force cooperation. The term comes from the 19th century when Western powers used naval fleets to intimidate less powerful entities into granting concessions.
The Rooseveltian version of gunboat diplomacy, also known as "Big Stick" diplomacy, was the brainchild of US President Theodore Roosevelt. The term "big stick" comes from an aphorism Roosevelt often used: "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far". This approach had five components:
- Possessing serious military capability that would force the adversary to pay attention.
- Negotiating peacefully while having strength to fall back on if things went wrong.
- Using gunboat diplomacy to create or remove a fait accompli.
- Applying naval force to change the policy or character of the target government or group.
- Sending a political message through the use of navies.
Roosevelt's "Big Stick" diplomacy was used to secure US control of the financial interests of the Dominican Republic, ensuring the country could repay its debts to France, Germany, and Italy. It was also demonstrated by the voyage of the "Great White Fleet", a fleet of 16 battleships and seven destroyers, which sailed from the Chesapeake Bay in 1907 and covered 43,000 miles over the next 14 months, making port calls on six continents. This display of naval power reinforced the Open Door policy throughout Asia and protected US interests in the region. Roosevelt also used "Big Stick" diplomacy in Latin America, where the US had a strong military presence, and to maintain a balance of power in Asia.
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Woodrow Wilson's occupation of Veracruz
The United States occupation of Veracruz, a Mexican port city, occurred from April to November 1914 during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson. The occupation was a significant event in the Mexican Revolution, which had begun in 1911 with the liberals' overthrow of the military dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz.
In the lead-up to the occupation, tensions had been building between the US and Mexico. The US had withdrawn its support for the military regime of General Victoriano Huerta during the Mexican Revolution and placed an embargo on arms transfers to Huerta, whom President Wilson considered illegitimate. Tensions escalated further due to the Tampico Affair, in which several unarmed sailors from the USS Dolphin, anchored in Tampico, were arrested after landing in a restricted dock area.
On April 21, 1914, US warships of the Atlantic Fleet, commanded by Admiral Frank Fletcher, arrived at Veracruz. This marked the beginning of the US occupation of the city, which lasted for approximately six months. Sporadic fighting occurred for the first two days, followed by a prolonged occupation by US Army and Marine forces. The occupation resulted in Mexican casualties, with hospital records showing 126 dead and 195 wounded, many of whom were civilians. The true number of casualties was likely much higher.
The US intervention in Veracruz sparked strong backlash and anti-US riots in Mexico and several other Latin American countries. This backlash, along with the internal division within Mexico, ultimately contributed to Huerta's exile in July 1914. A group led by Venustiano Carranza established control, and Wilson recognized Carranza's government in October 1915. However, the US did not immediately endorse Carranza, and the Revolution intensified along the US-Mexico border.
The occupation of Veracruz was a significant event in the complex relationship between the US and Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. It highlighted the tensions and power dynamics between the two countries and the US's involvement in Mexican affairs during this tumultuous period.
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Dollar diplomacy
The goal of dollar diplomacy, according to Taft and Knox, was to create stability and maintain order abroad, which would also promote American commercial interests. They believed that not only was the goal of diplomacy to improve financial opportunities, but also to use private capital to further US interests overseas. This was evident in extensive US interventions in Venezuela, Cuba, and Central America, especially in measures undertaken to safeguard American financial interests and from the United States government in the region. In his message to Congress on December 3, 1912, in the course of a review of his foreign policy actions of the preceding year, Taft characterized his program as "substituting dollars for bullets."
Overall, dollar diplomacy was considered a failure, and when Woodrow Wilson became president in 1913, he immediately canceled all support for it.
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US presence in Haiti
The US presence in Haiti has been significant over the years, with a history of occupation, intervention, and influence. Here is a detailed overview:
US Occupation of Haiti
The United States occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934, a period marked by socioeconomic instability and political turmoil in the Caribbean nation. The US intervention in Haiti began on July 28, 1915, when 330 US Marines landed in Port-au-Prince, the capital, following the assassination of Haitian President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam. This assassination came amid a series of seven presidents being overthrown or assassinated between 1911 and 1915, creating a volatile environment.
The US occupation was justified as a means to restore order and maintain political and economic stability in Haiti, which was a significant concern for US diplomatic and defense officials due to its proximity to the Panama Canal Zone and potential as a naval base. During this period, the US ruled Haiti as a military regime through martial law, led by the Marines and the Gendarmerie, a US-created Haitian military force.
Gunboat Diplomacy
The term "gunboat diplomacy" is associated with US President Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" ideology and his deployment of the Great White Fleet in 1909. Gunboat diplomacy refers to the use of naval power and the threat of force to coerce or intimidate another country into compliance. In the case of Haiti, gunboat diplomacy was enforced as early as 1890 during the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair when President Benjamin Harrison sent a fleet to demand the acquisition of the port of Môle Saint-Nicolas from Haitian President Florvil Hyppolite. The Haitians refused and protested the show of force, but the incident highlighted the US's willingness to use its military might to pursue its interests.
Economic and Political Interests
The United States had economic and political interests in Haiti, which influenced its presence in the country. Haiti was the United States' largest trade partner in the early 20th century, and there were concerns about the influence of European powers, particularly Germany, which had increased its commercial presence in Haiti. Additionally, the US sought to protect its financial interests, as Haiti's large debt was owed primarily to US, French, and German entities.
Forced Labor and Instability
The US occupation of Haiti was marked by the implementation of forced labor for infrastructure projects, resulting in thousands of deaths. The Gendarmerie, the US-created Haitian force, enforced unpopular policies, including racial segregation, press censorship, and forced labor, which led to a peasant rebellion from 1919 to 1920. Despite US efforts, most Haitians remained in poverty, while American personnel benefited economically.
Withdrawal and Continued Influence
The US began its withdrawal from Haiti in 1930, and by 1934, the occupation officially ended with the transfer of authority to the Haitian Gendarmerie. However, the US continued to maintain economic connections and influence in the country. The occupation's legacy included a reorganized Haitian political system, a trained Haitian military, and a shift in the country's constitution to allow foreign land ownership.
In the following decades, Haiti experienced dictatorships, coups, and US interventions, including economic blockades and military actions. The US policy towards Haiti has been criticized for exacerbating problems and failing to achieve stated goals, with some arguing that US interventions have made Haiti's welfare America's responsibility.
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US control of the Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a North American country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. It was occupied and annexed by Haiti in 1822, which treated it as a colonial territory. In 1844, the Dominican Republic gained independence from Haiti, but since then, the country has seen a mix of coups, U.S. military intervention and occupations, military government, and democratic government.
In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt’s “Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine” officially made the threat of military force a tool of United States foreign policy. Roosevelt hoped to establish the United States as the dominant power in the Caribbean and across the Pacific. In 1905, Roosevelt used gunboat diplomacy to secure U.S. control of the financial interests of the Dominican Republic without the costs of formal colonisation. Under U.S. control, the Dominican Republic succeeded in repaying its debts to France, Germany, and Italy.
In 1916, the USA occupied the Dominican Republic, primarily to protect American economic interests. The Dominican Congress selected Francisco Henriquez as President, but he refused to obey American commands, so he was removed. The US then placed their own military government in charge. The US occupation lasted for eight years, during which time Dominicans never warmed to the occupying force, instead resenting the high-handed intruders. Isolated ambushes of American soldiers were frequent, and Dominicans also organised themselves politically, creating the Unión Nacional Dominicana, whose purpose was to drum up support in other parts of Latin America and convince the Americans to withdraw.
The first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another in the Dominican Republic took place in 1978. Today, the United States and the Dominican Republic have solid, but complex, relations. The Dominican Republic is an important partner for the United States in hemispheric affairs due to its standing in the Caribbean as the largest economy and second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, its large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States.
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Frequently asked questions
Gunboat diplomacy is most closely associated with President Theodore Roosevelt and his "Big Stick" ideology.
In 1904, Roosevelt's "Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine" made the threat of military force an official tool of US foreign policy. He added ten battleships and four cruisers to the US Navy, establishing the US as a dominant power in the Caribbean and Pacific.
Yes, virtually all presidents since Woodrow Wilson have used gunboat diplomacy to varying degrees. Woodrow Wilson notably occupied Veracruz in Mexico in 1914 during the Mexican Revolution.
