Simone Lawson
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644. It was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who assumed the reign title of Hongwu. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, the majority ethnic group in China. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty and was one of the most stable and autocratic of all Chinese dynasties. During the Ming period, China exerted immense cultural and political influence on its neighbouring regions, including East Asia, the Turks to the west, and Vietnam and Myanmar to the south. The Ming dynasty was marked by significant developments in various aspects of society, including diplomacy, economics, social structure, and culture.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Founder | Zhu Yuanzhang |
| Dates | 1368–1644 |
| Population | 160 million at its height, with some estimates as high as 200 million |
| Capital | Beijing |
| Previous Dynasty | Yuan |
| Founder's Title | Hongwu |
| Founder's Background | Former peasant and Buddhist monk |
| Founder's Priorities | Creating a society of self-sufficient rural communities, limiting the influence of merchants, purging the court of corruption, reforming the government, strengthening the military, reunifying China, expanding the empire's territory |
| Number of Emperors | 16 |
| Notable Emperors | Yongle, Xuande, Yingzong, Wanli |
| Notable Events | Construction of the Forbidden City, publication boom, rise of the eunuch class, spread of Confucianism, development of new agricultural technologies, growth of cities, rise of the merchant class, European trade, Japanese silver smuggling, Tumu Crisis |
| Military | Weisuo system, similar to the fubing system of the Tang Dynasty |
| Culture | Two main traditions in painting: "literati painting" of the Wu school and "professional academics" of the Zhe school |
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What You'll Learn
The rise of the merchant class
The Ming dynasty, which lasted from 1368 to 1644, was a period of stability and autocracy in China. It was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as Emperor Hongwu, who rose to power through a rebel group associated with the White Lotus Society. Zhu Yuanzhang's humble origins and subsequent rise to power set the tone for a shift in social dynamics during the Ming dynasty, particularly the rise of the merchant class.
During the Ming dynasty, the social structure of China was broadly categorized into four occupations or "four categories of the people": the shi (gentry scholars), the nong (peasant farmers), the gong (artisans and craftsmen), and the shang (merchants and traders). While this system was not strictly based on socioeconomic classes, the commercialization of Chinese society during the Ming period led to a blurring of the lines between these categories.
Secondly, the development of large-scale production and the use of wage labor in industries such as textile and paper allowed merchants to accumulate wealth. They established their own guilds and imitated the manners and behaviors of the scholar-officials to gain higher prestige and acceptance by the scholarly elite. Additionally, merchants began to invest in education, sponsoring the construction of roads, schools, and bridges, as well as engaging in essential industries like book-making.
The accumulation of wealth by the merchant class led to a shift in social dynamics. Merchant families used their financial resources to provide their sons with a better education and prepare them for civil service exams, allowing them to jump to higher social levels. By the late Ming dynasty, the social status of merchants had risen significantly, and even scholar-officials acknowledged their family members who were merchants in their official histories. This fusion of the wealthy merchant and landholding gentry classes challenged the traditional social order and contributed to the rise of the merchant class during the Ming dynasty.
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Increased cultural and political influence
During the Ming dynasty, China exerted immense cultural and political influence on East Asia and the Turks to the west, as well as on Vietnam and Myanmar to the south. The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who later assumed the reign title of Hongwu. Zhu Yuanzhang was born into poverty and spent part of his youth wandering the country after his parents died. He spent several years begging for a Buddhist monastery and living there until a militia burned it down to suppress a rebellion. In 1352, he joined a rebel group related to the White Lotus Society and swiftly rose through the ranks, eventually leading a successful invasion of Nanjing, which he used as a base to attack regional warlords.
Zhu Yuanzhang's background influenced his policies as emperor. As a peasant, he disliked merchants, and this attitude was shared by many of his successors. As a result, internal trade was heavily sanctioned during the Ming dynasty to curb speculation and price gouging, practices that Hongwu felt disproportionately affected the poorest Chinese. Eventually, all internal, non-state-sanctioned trade was outlawed, leading to an increase in piracy and smuggling as goods were still trafficked into, out of, and across China. For example, Japanese traders smuggled silver into China, and although Ming officials tried to stop them, they were largely unsuccessful.
The Ming dynasty also witnessed a publishing boom, with a plethora of affordable books being produced for the masses. These included reference books, religious tracts, school primers, Confucian literature, and civil service examination guides. Fiction was also popular, especially stories written in colloquial language. One well-known playwright of the time was Tang Xianzu, who specialised in social satire and romance. It was during the Ming dynasty that full-length novels began to gain popularity, many of which were adaptations of ancient oral traditions.
The Ming dynasty was one of the most stable and autocratic Chinese dynasties. The basic governmental structure established by the Ming dynasty was continued by the subsequent Qing (Manchu) dynasty and lasted until the imperial institution was abolished in 1911/12. The Ming dynasty perfected the civil service system, which became stratified, with almost all top officials entering the bureaucracy by passing a government examination. The position of prime minister was abolished, and the emperor assumed personal control of the government, ruling with the assistance of a specially appointed Neige or Grand Secretariat.
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The importance of the eunuch class
The eunuch class was an important feature of the Ming dynasty, which ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The eunuchs were a powerful group who held significant influence in the court and the government. They were often trusted and relied upon by the emperors, who saw them as a counterweight to the literati and the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats.
The eunuch class had a unique position in the Ming government, which was traditionally divided into three branches: civil, military, and surveillance. The eunuchs were part of the imperial household and had their own agencies and administrative networks, operating independently from the standard bureaucratic system. They were often appointed to high-ranking positions and given important roles, such as leading armies and exploring new territories. For example, the famous admiral Zheng He was a eunuch who served under the Yongle Emperor and led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean and as far as the eastern coasts of Africa.
The eunuchs also had their own social structure, providing and gaining support for their birth clans. They built temples and conducted rituals to worship powerful eunuchs from the past, such as Gang Tie from the Yuan dynasty. Eunuchs were often seen as more reliable than scholar-officials because they were incapable of having children and were thus thought to be less tempted to seize power. This led to them being given important roles and even dictatorial power in some cases.
The number of eunuchs in the Ming dynasty was significant, with thousands being admitted to the palace throughout the dynasty. They came from various regions, including North China, Southeast Asia, and Korea. Over time, the eunuchs gained more power and influence, especially during the reign of the Wanli Emperor in the 1590s, when they were granted the right to collect provincial taxes. However, the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, took steps to break the power of the eunuchs and limit their involvement in political affairs.
In conclusion, the eunuch class played a crucial role in the Ming dynasty, holding significant power and influence in the court and the government. They were trusted by the emperors and often appointed to important positions, which led to the establishment of a separate administrative network controlled by eunuchs. Their unique position and influence had a notable impact on the Ming dynasty and its diplomacy.
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The expansion of foreign trade
The Ming dynasty, which lasted from 1368 to 1644, was a period of economic growth and expansion of foreign trade for China. The Ming dynasty founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as the Hongwu Emperor, was marked by increasing political influence of merchants, the gradual weakening of imperial rule, and technological advancements.
One of the significant developments during the Ming dynasty was the expansion of foreign trade through a series of maritime expeditions. Led by the Muslim eunuch Zheng He (Cheng Ho), these expeditions spanned from 1405 to 1433 and reached southeastern Asian nations, the Indian coast, the Persian Gulf, and the east coast of Africa. These voyages not only demonstrated the military and political might of the Ming government but also stimulated significant foreign trade.
The ships carried valuable Chinese goods such as silk, textiles, chinaware, and copper coins, which were highly sought-after in Asian markets. In exchange, China imported exotic goods and animals from foreign lands, amusing the emperor and court officials. These expeditions also established imperial control over local private commercial networks, expanded tributary relations, and brought commerce under state supervision, generating substantial revenue for both China and its trading partners.
During the Ming dynasty, China also engaged in thriving trade with Europe and Japan. Silver, in particular, flowed into China, with estimates reaching 300 million taels or 10,500 metric tonnes, equivalent to over 190 billion dollars in today's value. This trade was facilitated by the Portuguese, who acted as intermediaries between China and Japan, and later by the Dutch and Spanish. The influx of silver helped fuel the economy, and China's integration into the world trading system brought about a publishing boom, with affordable books being produced for commoners.
The Ming dynasty also witnessed the rise of powerful merchant clans, such as the Huai and Jin clans, who amassed significant wealth. The merchants' influence grew, and they gained power at the expense of the state. This shift in power dynamics, along with the liberalized economy, marked a significant expansion of foreign trade during the Ming dynasty.
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The influence of the emperor
The Ming dynasty, officially the "Great Ming", was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644. It was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as the Hongwu Emperor, who rose to power through a rebel group related to the White Lotus Society. The Hongwu Emperor aimed to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities with a permanent standing army, and he worked to rebuild state infrastructure, including constructing a wall around Nanjing and new palaces and government halls.
The Hongwu Emperor's influence extended beyond domestic policies, as he also played a significant role in shaping Ming diplomacy. He issued edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaimed his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority, continuing some policies of the Yuan dynasty, such as requesting Korean concubines and eunuchs, and promoting Mongol-style clothing and activities like archery and horseback riding. The Hongwu Emperor's complex relationship with the Yuan dynasty's legacy had an impact on Ming diplomacy, as it influenced the dynasty's relationship with other powers, particularly the Mongols.
The Hongwu Emperor's suspicion and distrust of his ministers and subjects also influenced Ming diplomacy. He established the Embroidered Uniform Guard, a network of secret police, and executed a significant number of people during his rule. This atmosphere of suspicion and the desire for control may have contributed to the Ming dynasty's diplomatic approach, which included sporadic armed interventions in neighbouring regions, such as Tibet, and struggles with various nationalities, most notably the Mongols.
The Hongwu Emperor's successor, the Yongle Emperor, also had a significant impact on Ming diplomacy. During his reign, silver mining was increased dramatically, and he relied heavily on trusted eunuchs, marking a shift from the previous reliance on literati in managing state affairs. The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He with fleets throughout Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and East Africa, exerting influence and collecting tribute. However, after the Yongle Emperor, the Ming emperors fostered Haijin isolationist policies, limiting international trade and foreign contacts. This shift in policy, influenced by the emperor's preferences, had a significant impact on Ming diplomacy and China's interactions with the outside world.
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Frequently asked questions
The Ming dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644. It was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who later assumed the reign title of Hongwu. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty and was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, the majority ethnic group in China.
The Ming dynasty was known for its autocratic rule, with the emperor exerting direct control over the government. The civil service system was perfected during this period, with officials entering top levels of the bureaucracy by passing a government examination. The Ming dynasty also saw a publishing boom, with affordable books becoming widely available to commoners. This contributed to a literacy boom during this period.
One significant event that affected Ming diplomacy was the constant threat posed by the Mongols. The Great Wall of China, which was constructed and maintained during the Ming dynasty, served as a defence against invasion. Additionally, the rise of the merchant class and the expansion of foreign trade, often through conquest and the state, also influenced Ming diplomacy. The entry of European Christian missionaries into China during this period provided the world with a glimpse of life in the country.
During the Ming dynasty, China exerted cultural and political influence on East Asia, the Turks to the west, and Vietnam and Myanmar to the south. This period saw the rise of the eunuch class and the spread of Confucianism. In terms of social aspects, women in Ming China had the ability to become property owners and had access to literature. However, they generally lived domestic lives and bore children, with male children being favoured over female children.
