Malcolm Rivera
When writing an academic paper, it is important to evaluate the quality of the information provided by outside sources. Sources of information are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material, based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source. Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information. Secondary sources interpret or restate primary sources, while tertiary sources list, summarize, or repackage ideas or other information. When evaluating sources, it is important to consider the purpose and intended audience, authority and credibility, accuracy and reliability, currency and timeliness, and objectivity or bias. For example, a scholarly publication contains articles written by experts in a particular field, peer-reviewed by other scholars, and intended for other experts. On the other hand, a writer studying recycling practices may use an article written by an organization that is pro-recycling, as long as they explain the source's stance and include other perspectives.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Purpose | Academic research, theoretical review, literature review, methodology |
| Type of source | Primary, secondary, tertiary, scholarly, textbooks, articles, books, websites, databases, journals, magazines, newspapers, conference proceedings, theses, dissertations, reports, etc. |
| Criteria for evaluation | Intended audience, authority, credibility, accuracy, reliability, currency, timeliness, objectivity, bias, references, evidence, validity, reliability, publisher |
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Publisher
When deciding on appropriate outside sources, it is important to consider the context of the work and the audience. For academic work, the top-tier sources are considered the most credible and include books and scholarly articles from mainstream academic literature. Academic books can be textbooks, extended reports on large research projects, or edited volumes with different authors. These books are written by experts in the field and are reviewed by qualified scholars before publication. Scholarly articles are usually found in academic journals and are also reviewed by experts before publication. They are published multiple times a year to share the latest research findings.
To identify academic or scholarly sources, look for elements such as a defined structure, author credentials, advanced language, and a bibliography. In addition to books and articles, credible academic sources can also include primary texts such as historical documents, letters, and diaries. Theses and dissertations are also considered academic sources but are not typically peer-reviewed. Some sources may be blacklisted and should be avoided, such as state-sponsored fake news sites.
When conducting research, it is important to use a range of sources, including both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are the original source of information, while secondary sources are one step removed from the primary source and include articles, reviews, and critiques. For example, when researching the health effects of nicotine, you may want to read published scientific studies (primary sources) as well as magazine articles discussing the outcomes of these studies (secondary sources).
To find the most relevant sources, it is helpful to start with a narrow topic and specific research questions. This will allow you to identify keywords that can be used to search for sources in library databases. It is also important to consider the currency of the sources, as some topics may require more up-to-date information than others. For example, an article from 2002 on social networking sites will not provide current information.
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Author credentials
When determining whether an outside source is appropriate, it is important to consider the author's credentials. This involves evaluating the author's expertise, educational background, and potential conflicts of interest.
Firstly, it is crucial to assess the author's expertise in the subject matter of the article. An author with an extensive publication history in the field is likely to be a credible source. For example, an author with numerous published papers on infectious diseases would be a reliable source for a new article on SARS-CoV-2. Conversely, an author with no previous experience in the field may raise concerns about the quality of their research, especially if their findings contradict existing medical literature.
Secondly, examining the author's educational background is essential. It is important to ensure that the author's qualifications are relevant to the topic of their research. For instance, if a physicist is writing about internal medicine, it may be prudent to verify that there are other internal medicine experts contributing to the paper.
Additionally, it is important to consider potential conflicts of interest. Authors may have funding sources that are not disclosed in the article, which could influence the research and its results. For example, a paper claiming the effectiveness of a drug may be funded by a pharmaceutical company with a vested interest in positive outcomes. It is also worth noting that even if authors are not financially compromised, their work could still be biased due to undisclosed personal beliefs or affiliations.
To verify an author's credentials, there are several online tools available. Google Scholar allows users to search for an author and view their profile, which often includes affiliations, publications, and citations. LinkedIn is another resource for finding authors' educational backgrounds, licenses, certifications, and publications. ResearchGate, a European networking site for scientists and researchers, also provides author profiles, publications, and collaboration opportunities. Scopus, the world's largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed research, offers a free author lookup tool and statistics on an author's documents and citations.
By considering the author's expertise, educational background, and potential conflicts of interest, as well as utilizing online tools to verify their credentials, one can effectively evaluate the appropriateness of an outside source.
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Objectivity
When writing objectively, it is crucial to avoid using first-person pronouns ("I", "we") or second-person pronouns ("you"), as these can introduce personal bias. Instead, objective writing uses third-person pronouns ("he", "she", "they", "it") and passive voice constructions to create an impersonal tone. For example, "The experiment was conducted" is more objective than "I conducted the experiment". However, overuse of the passive voice can make writing cumbersome, so active voice constructions without personal pronouns, such as "The white powder dissolved in the liquid", are also common in objective writing.
To maintain objectivity, writers should avoid judgmental and emotive language, which can indicate the presence of personal opinions or biases. Phrases like "I believe" or "I feel" should generally be avoided, as they suggest that the writer's argument is based on personal feelings rather than evidence. Instead, arguments should be supported by facts and evidence from credible sources, which can include academic articles, books, and scholarly journals.
When evaluating the objectivity of a source, it is important to consider the author's background, affiliations, and potential biases. The purpose of the writing should also be taken into account—is it meant to educate, persuade, or evoke an emotional response? Even when a source presents valuable information, it is important to consult the original studies and data to ensure that the information has not been cherry-picked or misrepresented.
In the context of outside sources, objectivity also relates to maintaining impartiality when accepting gifts or benefits. For example, employees of government agencies should avoid accepting gifts from outside organisations that could create a conflict of interest or influence their decisions. There are often guidelines and value limits in place to ensure that any gifts received do not compromise objectivity or create a sense of obligation.
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Primary sources
- Texts of laws and other original documents
- Diaries, letters, memoirs, autobiographies, and other personal writings
- Photographs, videos, or audio recordings that capture an event
- Archaeological artifacts
- Unpublished manuscripts
It is important to note that whether something is considered a primary source can depend on the context and purpose of the research or study being conducted. For example, newspaper articles or opinion pieces can be considered primary sources if they contain firsthand accounts of an event or reflect the perspectives of people at a particular time. On the other hand, they can be considered secondary sources if they are being analyzed or interpreted to understand an event or issue.
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Scholarly articles
When determining whether a source is useful, it is important to consider the publisher and the type of source. Books published by university presses and articles in scholarly journals are reviewed by experts. When writing a literature review, it is important to clarify the number and type of sources to include. This could include books, journal articles, websites, or other scholarly versus popular sources.
In terms of examples of appropriate outside sources, consider the following:
- An employee of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency was invited to speak by an association of cartographers. The employee may accept a gift basket worth up to $20 from the association at the conclusion of the speech.
- The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) accepted an association's gift of travel expenses and conference fees for an employee to attend a conference on radon exposure. While at the conference, the employee may accept a gift basket worth up to $20 from one of the companies sponsoring the event.
These examples demonstrate situations where gifts from outside sources are acceptable according to certain guidelines and limitations.
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Frequently asked questions
Consider the publisher of the source. For example, books published by university presses and articles in scholarly journals are reviewed by experts.
Common evaluation criteria include purpose and intended audience, authority and credibility, accuracy and reliability, currency and timeliness, and objectivity or bias.
These classifications are based on the originality of the material and proximity to the source. Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information. Secondary sources interpret or restate primary sources, often summarizing, interpreting, or reorganizing the information. Tertiary sources list, summarize, or repackage ideas or information from other sources.
Theses, dissertations, textbooks, books, articles, histories, biographies, literary criticism, and political analyses are all examples of secondary sources.
It is acceptable to use such a source as long as you explain the source's stance and include other perspectives.
