Jonah Patel
Wartime diplomacy refers to the diplomatic interactions and strategies employed by nations during a state of war. It involves negotiations, alliances, and propaganda campaigns aimed at achieving specific objectives and securing advantageous outcomes. Wartime diplomacy can encompass various activities, such as subversion, propaganda, redefining war goals, luring neutral countries, encouraging nationalist movements within enemy territories, and proposing peace. Wartime diplomacy also extends to economic and financial strategies, as well as post-war planning and coalition-building. Effective wartime diplomacy is essential for maintaining unity among allies and navigating complex relationships with enemy nations.
Characteristics of Wartime Diplomacy
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Subversion and propaganda campaigns to weaken the morale of the enemy | Propaganda efforts with neutrals |
| Luring provisionally neutral countries onto one's side | Encouragement of nationalistic minority movements within enemy territories |
| Defining and redefining war goals | Winning the peace |
| Peace proposals | Evacuating Americans from combat zones |
| Maintaining liaison with the International Red Cross | Dealing with refugees |
| Coordinating the activities of various agencies | Assisting in the reconstruction of liberated territories |
| Creating an efficient international communication system | Using the atomic bomb as a negotiation tactic |
| Issuing joint public denunciations |
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What You'll Learn
Propaganda campaigns
Wartime diplomacy involves non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among warring nations to build support for their cause or to undermine their enemies. Propaganda campaigns are a crucial aspect of wartime diplomacy, aiming to influence public opinion and shape the perceptions of citizens.
During World War I, propaganda was pervasive and inescapable, taking various forms such as posters, pamphlets, leaflets, magazine articles, advertisements, short films, and speeches. For instance, the Parliamentary Recruiting Committee in Britain distributed approximately 12 million copies of 140 distinct posters, 34 million leaflets, and 5.5 million pamphlets during the first two years of the war. Propaganda often leveraged national symbols, historical references, and mythology to evoke emotional responses and foster unity. It also frequently depicted the enemy in a negative light to instil fear and strengthen resolve.
In the lead-up to and during World War II, propaganda continued to play a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and rallying support for the war effort. The Office of War Information (OWI) in the United States, established in 1942, sought to boost wartime production and undermine enemy morale. They utilised various mediums, including posters, movies, and cartoons, to disseminate their message. The American government also launched campaigns to address labour shortages by encouraging women to join the workforce, presenting these roles as patriotic and essential to the war effort.
Winston Churchill's creation of the British Political Warfare Executive (PWE) in 1941 demonstrates the British utilisation of propaganda to damage enemy morale. The PWE employed clandestine radio stations, black propaganda, and printed postcards and leaflets to disseminate subversive messages behind enemy lines. Joseph Goebbels, the head of Nazi Germany's Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, played a crucial role in inflaming German nationalism and creating an atmosphere that enabled the regime to commit atrocities against Jews and minorities.
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Peacetime proposals
During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson played a pivotal role in shaping wartime diplomacy. In 1918, he proclaimed his Fourteen Points, the first of which advocated for "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at". This meant that all peace agreements should be made in public, with no secret treaties or hidden agendas. This proposal aimed to bring transparency to international relations and prevent the kind of secretive manoeuvring that had contributed to the war.
In the lead-up to World War II, the "Grand Alliance" was formed between the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, later including Nationalist China. This alliance was a crucial diplomatic endeavour to maintain unity among the Allies and focus on the common goal of defeating the Axis Powers. Despite their differences and distrust, the leaders of these nations prioritised cooperation through initiatives like the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the "Germany First" plan.
Wartime diplomacy also involves interactions with neutral countries to build support and lure them to one's side. During World War I, the Allies and Central Powers attempted to court neutral countries like Italy and the Ottoman Empire by offering them enemy territory. This strategy aimed to strengthen their position and weaken the enemy's resources.
Post-war planning is another aspect of peacetime proposals. During World War II, Secretary Cordell Hull established an Advisory Committee on Postwar Foreign Policy to prevent the partisan fighting that occurred after World War I. Additionally, the Roosevelt administration drafted a "Declaration by United Nations," which called for a post-war peace organisation and was signed by nearly 50 nations, solidifying the coalition against the Axis Powers.
In conclusion, peacetime proposals during wartime diplomacy are essential for managing alliances, courting neutral countries, and laying the groundwork for a stable post-war world. These proposals shape the international landscape and can help prevent future conflicts.
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Wartime conferences
During World War I, wartime conferences played a pivotal role in coordinating the efforts of the Allies. One notable aspect was the focus on propaganda, with Britain, for instance, engaging in propaganda efforts directed at neutral countries. The Inter-Allied Finance Council, meanwhile, addressed financial matters, with the United States, holding most of the available funds by 1917, making key decisions about distributing loans to its allies. The Allied Council on War Purchases and Finance, the Inter-Allied Food Council, and the Inter-Allied Maritime Council are other examples of councils that dealt with specific aspects of the war effort.
In the same conflict, the issue of genocide and the diplomatic response it elicited came to the fore. The Allies denounced the "mass murders" of Armenians, coining the phrase "crime against humanity and civilization" and vowing to hold guilty parties accountable. This joint public denunciation showcased the unity of the Allies and their commitment to addressing atrocities.
Another significant World War II conference was the Potsdam Conference, marking the first meeting between President Truman and Stalin. Truman, armed with the knowledge of the atomic bomb's development, aimed to sway the Soviets with "atomic diplomacy." Despite this advantage, the Americans did not achieve all their goals at Potsdam, as Stalin had already made arrangements regarding Poland's boundaries. Nonetheless, the conference resulted in plans to divide Germany into four zones of occupation, with each Allied sector responsible for its own reparations.
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Military strategy
The term "strategy" is derived from the Greek word "strategos", and when it was first used in the 18th century, it was defined in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", or ""the art of arrangement" of troops. Military strategy has evolved to be more complex, and in the 19th century, it was viewed as one of the trivium of "arts" or "sciences" that govern the conduct of warfare, along with tactics and logistics.
The father of Western modern strategic studies, Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831), defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain the end of war". B. H. Liddell Hart's definition, however, put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy". Both definitions give pre-eminence to political aims over military goals.
Sun Tzu (544–496 BC) is considered the father of Eastern military strategy, and his book, "The Art of War", has influenced Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese historical and modern war tactics. He defined 13 principles in his book, while Napoleon listed 115 maxims. American Civil War General Nathan Bedford Forrest had only one: "to get there first with the most men".
Military strategies can be categorised in several ways, including:
- Heavy force: A counterinsurgency strategy that uses overwhelming force to destroy an insurgency while it is still manageable.
- Human wave attack: An unprotected frontal attack that seeks to engage as many combatants as possible in close-range combat with the defender.
- Hybrid warfare: Employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare, and cyberwarfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy, and foreign electoral intervention.
- Fortification: The use of semi-permanent or permanent defensive structures to provide physical protection for a military unit.
- Scorched earth: Destroying anything that might be useful to the enemy while retreating or advancing.
- Choke point: The use of strategic geography to concentrate the enemy into a confined area where the defender can maximise their forces.
Grand strategy is a country's most complex form of planning toward the fulfilment of a long-term objective. It involves identifying a national goal, assessing the state's resources, and marshalling those resources in a highly organised manner to achieve the goal. Grand strategies are formulated with a wide array of political, economic, military, and even psychological dimensions. They are concerned not only with winning wars but also with securing a comfortable, lasting peace.
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Prisoner-of-war exchanges
Wartime diplomacy involves a range of non-military interactions and negotiations between belligerents, including subversion and propaganda campaigns, the redefining of war goals, luring neutral countries, encouragement of nationalistic minority movements within enemy territories, and peace proposals. Prisoner-of-war exchanges are a critical aspect of wartime diplomacy, and they involve the reciprocal transfer of prisoners between conflicting parties during armed conflicts.
International organizations, governments, and humanitarian groups may also play a role in guaranteeing compliance with legal frameworks governing the treatment and release of prisoners of war. These groups prioritize the humane treatment of detainees and adhere to international conventions regarding prisoner rights. Successful prisoner-of-war exchanges can contribute to building confidence between conflicting parties and can pave the way for broader peace initiatives.
For example, during the Russia-Ukraine conflict, a significant prisoner exchange took place between Russia and Western countries, including the United States. This exchange involved the release of Russian nationals held in Europe and the United States on various charges, including espionage and murder. In exchange, Western prisoners held in Russian jails, such as journalists and artists charged with espionage and spreading "fake news," were released. Such exchanges are often hailed as wins for both sides, as they secure the release of their citizens while also serving as a tactic of "hostage diplomacy."
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Frequently asked questions
Wartime diplomacy is the art of building support for one's cause, undermining support for enemies, and maintaining unity among allies. Wartime diplomacy also involves dealing with refugees, coordinating prisoner-of-war exchanges, and representing the interests of belligerents in enemy countries.
Wartime diplomacy during World War I included subversion and propaganda campaigns, luring neutral countries to join the war, encouraging nationalistic minority movements within enemy territories, and peace proposals. For example, the Allies used diplomacy to try to stop the Armenian genocide but were ignored. They then issued a joint public denunciation of the "mass murders," calling them a "crime against humanity and civilization."
President Woodrow Wilson played a significant role in wartime diplomacy during World War I, particularly in his dealings with the Allies and Germany. Wilson proclaimed his Fourteen Points, the first of which demanded open covenants of peace and an end to secret diplomacy.
The Department of State took on new responsibilities during World War II, including evacuating Americans from combat zones, maintaining liaison with the International Red Cross, and assisting in the reconstruction of liberated territories. They also created a complex system of efficient international communication.
The principal goal of the "Big Three"—Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Josef Stalin—was winning the war, and their early diplomacy focused on military issues. However, maintaining unity was challenging due to distrust and disagreements over strategy. For example, there were heated disagreements over a second military front in Europe, and the western allies were wary of Stalin's non-aggression pact with Hitler before the war.
