Simone Lawson
Diplomacy has been a critical tool for nations to navigate international relations for centuries. It is the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate (diplomat or diplomatist), based on the ancient Greek diplōma, which means an object folded in two. This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege. The earliest diplomats were a response to a need for a mechanism to convey messages between societies safely and reliably. Diplomacy has been used historically in various forms, from hostage diplomacy and humanitarian diplomacy to migration diplomacy and nuclear diplomacy. It has also been influenced by technological advancements, such as the internet and social media, leading to the emergence of digital diplomacy.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence |
| Origin | The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term "diplomate" ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek "diploma" ("folded in two") |
| Early History | Some elements of diplomacy predate recorded history, with early societies and tribes negotiating marriages, trade, and hunting regulations |
| Ancient History | Ancient civilisations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China used diplomatic treaties, marriages, and gift-giving to form alliances and negotiate peace |
| Medieval History | Medieval diplomacy involved the use of marriages as a political tool and the resolution of conflicts through envoys and sacred messengers |
| Modern History | Modern diplomatic practices emerged in post-Renaissance Europe and expanded globally by the 20th century, influenced by new technologies like the telegraph, internet, and social media |
| Types | Hostage diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, migration diplomacy, nuclear diplomacy, parliamentary diplomacy, etc. |
| Tools | Spies, reconnaissance satellites, international arbitration, diplomatic immunity, etc. |
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What You'll Learn
Diplomacy in ancient civilisations
Ancient civilisations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Persia, China, India, Greece, Italy, and Rome employed diplomacy in their relations with other states or city-states. The use of diplomatic techniques and methods helped uphold relationships with other entities, forge alliances, resolve conflicts, and establish trade agreements.
Ancient India, for example, had a sophisticated diplomatic tradition that was systematised and described in the Artha-shastra, one of the oldest books in secular Sanskrit literature. This tradition was shaped by a ruthlessly realistic state system that insisted that foreign relations be guided by self-interest rather than ethical considerations. Ancient India employed three categories of diplomats, each entrusted with specific issues or missions, and also made use of spies for intelligence gathering and covert operations.
The ancient Greeks' diplomacy was characterised by public negotiation and treaty ratifications through the exchange of solemn public oaths. They relied on 'proxenos', similar to modern-day honorary consuls, and 'heralds', who were chosen for their strong voices and memories to relay messages to other city-states.
The first records of Chinese diplomacy date back to the 1st millennium BC. By the 8th century BC, the Chinese had an organised system of polite dialogue between their feuding kingdoms, including resident envoys who served as hostages to guarantee the good behaviour of the sending kingdom.
The Persian Empire also discovered the potential of diplomacy when, in its last days, Darius III offered peace to Alexander of Macedonia based on "ancient friendship and alliance". The refusal of this offer led to the conquest of the Persian Empire by the Greeks, marking the end of the period of ancient civilisations.
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Medieval diplomacy
Diplomacy has been used since ancient times, with the term itself derived from the ancient Greek diplōma, which refers to "an object folded in two". This practice of folding documents was used to protect the privacy of their content before the invention of envelopes. The term "diplomacy" later became associated with international relations and the official relations between sovereign states.
A variety of techniques were employed during this time, such as the exchanging of envoys, negotiating treaties, and strategic marriage alliances. Seals and coats of arms were used to verify diplomatic documents and signify the monarch's authority. Latin, the language of the educated elite in Europe during the Middle Ages, was commonly used in diplomatic interactions.
The papacy, or the Pope, played a pivotal role in medieval diplomacy by arbitrating and mediating conflicts between European nations. This period also witnessed the emergence of notable figures renowned for their diplomatic skills, such as German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
The evolution of diplomatic practices continued, and by the 20th century, the methods pioneered in Europe had spread globally. Diplomacy expanded to encompass summit meetings, international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, and the work of international civil servants.
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Migration diplomacy
Historically, migration diplomacy has been used by sending states to promote the emigration of certain groups for political purposes. For instance, Egypt, under President Gamal Abdel Nasser, encouraged the emigration of highly skilled professionals across the Arab world during the 1950s and 1960s, many of whom engaged in pro-Egyptian activism abroad.
In recent years, the global migration crisis has brought migration diplomacy to the forefront. The post-2011 Syrian refugee crisis has provided examples of both cooperative and coercive migration diplomacy. Jordan, overwhelmed by an influx of Syrian refugees, secured \$1.4 billion in aid from the international community through the Jordan Compact. On the other hand, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan threatened to send refugees to Greece and Bulgaria unless a deal was reached with the European Union, highlighting the potential for migration flows to be used as a weapon in interstate relations.
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Technological advancements
Diplomacy has evolved alongside technology throughout history, with the two core pillars of diplomacy—information and communication—being transformed by each new advancement. From the earliest days of writing and the spoken word, through to the telephone, the internet, and social media, technology has had a profound impact on the diplomatic process.
The 19th century saw the invention of the telegraph, which had a profound impact on diplomacy by facilitating faster communication between nations. This technology effectively detached communication from transportation, allowing diplomats to send and receive messages without having to travel great distances. The telephone also played a significant role in diplomacy, enabling close contact between heads of state and the establishment of "red lines" for urgent communication.
The 20th century brought about the widespread use of radio, which was particularly important for countries that had not developed telegraph infrastructures. The radio, along with other wireless communication technologies, helped level the playing field in international relations by providing a means of fast communication to a broader range of nations.
In the 21st century, the internet and social media platforms have become indispensable tools for diplomacy, revolutionizing how nations interact on a global scale. Social media channels like Facebook and Twitter have emerged as powerful tools for engaging with global audiences and conducting public diplomacy. At the same time, artificial intelligence (AI) and big data analytics have enabled diplomats to streamline their efforts through data analysis, real-time translation, and sentiment monitoring. Blockchain technology has also emerged as a secure platform for treaty enforcement and international agreements, while virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) have provided new avenues for cultural diplomacy and cross-border collaboration.
However, the rapid advancement of technology has also brought new challenges for diplomats. The spread of misinformation, the erosion of trust in digital communications, and the rising threats of cyberattacks targeting sensitive diplomatic data are all issues that diplomats must now navigate. Additionally, the ethical implications of adopting advanced technologies, such as AI, require careful consideration and international cooperation to ensure responsible use.
The concept of "tech diplomacy" has emerged to address these challenges and opportunities. Tech diplomacy involves collaboration between governments and technology firms to address diplomatic issues related to emerging technologies. It encompasses digital diplomacy, science diplomacy, and economic diplomacy, with countries seeking to capture the nexus between technological innovation and economic development.
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International arbitration
In the 19th century, many arbitral agreements were concluded, establishing ad hoc arbitration tribunals to deal with specific cases or handle numerous claims. Boundary disputes between states were often settled by arbitration. The Hague Conference of 1899 gave international arbitration a more permanent basis by adopting the Hague Convention on the pacific settlement of international disputes, which was revised in 1907. This convention emphasised the importance of settling disputes between states through arbitration, with judges chosen by the disputing parties and based on respect for the law.
The Permanent Court of Arbitration, established in 1902, arbitrated twenty cases until 1932. However, its importance diminished with the establishment of the Permanent Court of Justice in 1922 and its successor, the International Court of Justice. The International Court of Arbitration, founded in 1923, has arbitrated over 10,000 disputes, including those between states and individuals or corporations.
There are several multilateral treaties that provide for the settlement of international disputes by arbitration, including the Geneva General Act for the Settlement of Disputes of 1928, which was adopted by the League of Nations and later reactivated by the UN General Assembly. The United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 1958, also known as the New York Convention, is another example. This convention has been ratified by over 150 countries and provides for the enforcement of foreign arbitration decisions worldwide.
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Frequently asked questions
Diplomacy is a tool used by nations to navigate the intricacies of international relations. Diplomacy is used to maintain stable relations with other states.
Diplomacy has been used since ancient times, with some elements of diplomacy predating recorded history. Ancient civilisations such as Egypt and Mesopotamia used diplomatic treaties and marriages to form alliances and negotiate peace. The first diplomatic language was Akkadian (Babylonian), which served as the international tongue of the Middle East.
Diplomacy has evolved over time to keep pace with the changing world. New technologies, such as the telephone, radio, and telegraph, have revolutionised communication and altered the nature of international relations. The use of digital diplomacy and social media has also transformed the way diplomacy is practised.
One example of diplomacy in history is the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, signed between the Muslim community in Medina and the Meccan tribe of Quraysh in 628 AD. Another example is the correspondence between the Muslim Caliph Umar and the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, which led to a fair and just treaty between the two empires. The Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars is another historically significant event in diplomacy.
