Jonah Patel
Diplomacy is often juxtaposed with armed conflict, with the latter being viewed as a failure of the former. However, diplomacy and the use of force are not mutually exclusive, and the threat of force can sometimes catalyze compromise. Gunboat diplomacy, for instance, involves the conspicuous display of naval power to intimidate other entities into granting concessions. While diplomacy may not always succeed in preventing conflict, it is not rendered useless. It can be employed during conflicts to contain them, minimize civilian casualties, and achieve ceasefires. Furthermore, successful diplomacy can provide legitimacy for subsequent responses to aggression, such as sanctions or military aid. Nonetheless, there are limits to diplomacy, as evidenced by the failure to prevent certain historical conflicts, including World War I, and more recently, Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
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What You'll Learn
Gunboat diplomacy
A notable example of gunboat diplomacy is the Don Pacifico affair in 1850, where the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, dispatched a squadron of the Royal Navy to blockade the Greek port of Piraeus. This was in retaliation for the assault of a British subject, David Pacifico, in Athens, and the subsequent failure of the government of King Otto to compensate Pacifico, who was Gibraltar-born and thus a British citizen.
Another example is the USS Wilmington's transit up the Orinoco River in Venezuela in 1899. Accompanied by the U.S. minister, Francis Loomis, the ship's Colt machine guns were frequently demonstrated to reinforce diplomacy and achieve national strategic objectives.
In the post-Cold War world, gunboat diplomacy is still largely based on naval forces due to the overwhelming sea power of the United States Navy. The Clinton administration, for instance, used sea-launched Tomahawk missiles and E-3 AWACS airborne surveillance aircraft in a passive display of military presence during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.
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Defence diplomacy
The concept of defence diplomacy recognises that diplomacy and armed conflict are not mutually exclusive. In some cases, the threat of force can be a catalyst for compromise and a means to contain conflict and minimise civilian harm once warfare has commenced. Defence diplomacy can, therefore, be a valuable tool in such scenarios.
An example of defence diplomacy in action is the Biden administration's response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Despite Putin's aggression, the United States and its allies pursued sweeping sanctions, closed their airspace to Russian aircraft, and provided military aid to Ukraine. These actions were recognised as a last resort, not warmongering. Defence diplomacy allowed the United States to navigate the limits of diplomacy and respond assertively without embracing war directly.
However, defence diplomacy has its limitations, as evidenced by the failure to prevent Russia's invasion of Ukraine. While defence diplomacy can provide a range of tools to avert or mitigate conflict, it may not always succeed against leaders willing to tolerate the fallout of their aggressive actions.
In conclusion, defence diplomacy is a nuanced and powerful tool in international relations. It offers a means to achieve positive outcomes through peaceful engagement and the strategic application of defence resources. While it may not always prevent warfare, defence diplomacy provides valuable mechanisms to contain conflict, minimise harm, and navigate complex geopolitical scenarios.
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Military diplomacy
An example of military diplomacy in action is gunboat diplomacy, which involves the pursuit of foreign policy objectives through conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable. Gunboat diplomacy, which originated in the 19th century during a period of imperialism, was used by Western powers to intimidate less powerful entities into granting concessions. A notable instance of gunboat diplomacy was the Don Pacifico affair in 1850, when the British blockaded a Greek port in retaliation for the assault of a British subject.
While gunboat diplomacy involves the use of force or the threat of force, military diplomacy can also play a role in conflict prevention and resolution. For example, in the lead-up to the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the Biden administration engaged in various diplomatic efforts to avoid armed conflict, including high-level direct engagement, face-to-face negotiations, written exchanges, and multilateral talks through the UN. These efforts exposed Putin as an aggressor and helped the US and its allies gain crucial leeway in how they responded to the subsequent fighting, including through sanctions and military aid that were recognised as a last resort rather than warmongering.
However, military diplomacy has its limitations, as seen in the failure to prevent wars such as World War I, and more recently, Russia's invasion of Ukraine. In some cases, a leader may be beyond appeals to reason or logic, as seems to be the case with Putin. Additionally, smaller countries' decisions can set off local wars that rapidly expand and escalate, catching the great powers off guard despite their attention deficit diplomacy.
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War as a failure of diplomacy
War has often been described as a failure of diplomacy. Diplomacy and armed conflict are often viewed as opposites, with the former ending when the latter begins. However, this is not always the case, as diplomacy can continue during war, focusing on containing conflict, reducing civilian casualties, and achieving a ceasefire.
The failure of diplomacy in World War I left a negative impression of it among Americans, with many seeing it as an expression of weakness or amateurism. This perception persists despite America's decades as a superpower, and has influenced how the country staffs its diplomatic and foreign policy teams, favouring amateurs over professionals.
The start of the 20th century saw competition between military blocs and the conflation of military posturing with diplomacy, a trend that continues today in regions such as the East and South China Seas, the Middle East, and Ukraine. Decisions by smaller allies of great powers can have unintended consequences, setting off local wars that rapidly expand and escalate.
Gunboat diplomacy, a form of hegemony, is a notable example of the interplay between diplomacy and the threat of force. It involves the pursuit of foreign policy objectives through displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare if terms are not agreed upon. A historical example is the Don Pacifico affair in 1850, where Britain blockaded a Greek port after a British subject was assaulted in Athens, and the Greek government failed to provide compensation.
While diplomacy does have its limitations, as evidenced by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, it is not rendered useless by failure. Successful diplomacy can persuade parties that all efforts to avert war have been exhausted, providing crucial leeway in how they respond to the fighting. Facing the limits of diplomacy does not mean embracing war, but may involve learning to live with the consequences of aggression and regrouping to mount more assertive strategies.
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The limits of diplomacy
The complexities of international relations and the pursuit of competing interests by nations can hinder diplomatic efforts. In the lead-up to World War I, the world witnessed rapid globalization, shifting power balances, rising nationalisms, socioeconomic stress, and transformative military technologies. These factors created a volatile environment where the careful balancing of interests gave way to competition between military blocs. Similarly, in the 20th century, successive crises in the Balkans and other regions escalated tensions and conflated military posturing with diplomacy.
Gunboat diplomacy, a form of hegemony, involves the conspicuous display of naval power to coerce less powerful entities into granting concessions. This approach, prevalent during the 19th-century period of imperialism, demonstrated Western powers' superior military capabilities and was used to establish colonial outposts and expand empires. While gunboat diplomacy may have been effective in the past, it is essential to recognize that times have changed. Today, factors such as personal relationships between leaders, a common European culture, and a tradition of successful conference diplomacy, which once inhibited war in Europe, are less prevalent.
Diplomacy's limitations are also evident in more recent conflicts, such as Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Despite the Biden administration's extensive diplomatic efforts to avoid armed conflict, they could not deter Russian President Vladimir Putin, who saw advantages in an all-out invasion. However, this does not render diplomacy useless. Even in the face of aggression, diplomacy provides crucial leeway in how nations respond, allowing for sanctions, closures of airspace, and infusions of military aid to be recognized as last resorts rather than acts of warmongering.
While diplomacy may fail to prevent all-out war, it remains a critical tool for conflict management and resolution. It is essential to recognize that the absence of diplomacy does not imply an embrace of war. Instead, facing the limitations of diplomacy may involve learning to live with the consequences of aggression and regrouping to develop more assertive strategies to counter future threats.
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Frequently asked questions
Gunboat diplomacy is the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable to the superior force. It is considered a form of hegemony.
A notable example of gunboat diplomacy is the Don Pacifico affair in 1850, where the British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston dispatched a squadron of the Royal Navy to blockade the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the assault of a British subject. Another example is the massing of threatening bodies of troops near international borders as practised by the German Reich in Central Europe in the 1940s.
Diplomacy fails when it is unable to prevent, halt, or resolve conflicts, often leading to war. This can occur due to factors such as shifting power balances, rising nationalisms, socioeconomic stress, and the lack of consideration for the strategic implications of decisions.
Failed diplomacy can result in war or other forms of violent conflict. It can also lead to difficulties in ending wars and establishing peace agreements, as well as challenges in managing the consequences of aggression.
