Eleanor Finch
The United States' adoption of cultural diplomacy as a foreign policy tool was largely driven by the Cold War, as American officials sought to counter anti-American sentiment and portray a positive national image abroad. The International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of 1956 cemented cultural diplomacy's role, with Eisenhower stating his hope for international understanding based on truth. This led to American artists and athletes traveling to various countries, showcase American culture and society. The Cold War context also prompted UNESCO member states to adopt a Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Cooperation in 1966, aiming to foster mutual understanding and address challenges in international relations. Cultural diplomacy has evolved, with the EU leveraging cultural heritage to promote peace and security, and countries like Brazil using cultural relations for foreign policy and nation-building purposes as early as the 1920s.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Cultural diplomacy during the Cold War | 1950s |
| International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act | 1956 |
| First State Department-sponsored jazz tour | 1956 |
| Moscow International Film Festival | 1961 |
| Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Cooperation | 1966 |
| First cultural mapping relations | 1920s |
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What You'll Learn
The Cold War era
Cultural diplomacy during the Cold War also extended to film. In 1961, the US participated in the Moscow International Film Festival, with Hollywood stars such as Doris Day, Elizabeth Taylor, and Eddie Fisher in attendance. This was an attempt to display America's "most endearing side." However, the chosen film entry was judged by many to be "boring," highlighting the challenges of using art as a diplomatic tool.
The expansion of US cultural diplomacy during the early Cold War was driven by a concern among Americans about the lack of modern national image management. Despite spending significant amounts on foreign aid and deploying soldiers to protect client states, America's reputation continued to deteriorate. Publications such as "As Others See Us" by Franz M. Joseph and Raymond Aron highlighted global antipathies directed against the United States, including criticisms of American industry, race relations, popular culture, and intellectual achievement.
Soviet propagandists portrayed American culture as a threat to other nations' identities and ways of life, claiming that it risked destroying the cultural achievements of others. This argument influenced US cultural diplomacy for decades, as American officials grappled with how to respond to these criticisms. European authors, including German journalist Adolf Halfeld, had also criticised American culture as a threat to local identities and the achievements of European culture. These perceptions contributed to a global phobia of American cultural imperialism.
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Anti-Americanism abroad
In Latin America, countries such as Argentina, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela have demonstrated anti-American sentiments. For example, Trump's policies and statements, such as his vow to reclaim the Panama Canal, have sparked protests and anti-American demonstrations in Central America.
In Europe, anti-Americanism has a long history, dating back to the 19th century when European denunciations of anti-black violence and American frontier violence were common. During the Cold War, Soviet propagandists portrayed American culture as a threat to other nations' identities and ways of life, emphasizing the superiority of European culture. French culture and German "Kultur", both with historical cultural ties to Russia, played a central role in this argument. Additionally, official communist media in Eastern Europe criticized American modernism, cosmopolitanism, jazz music, and rock and roll.
The fear that American culture would annihilate local identities and impose its standards globally has been a recurring theme in anti-American sentiment. This perception, skillfully crafted by ideological adversaries, has influenced US cultural diplomacy for decades.
To address anti-Americanism abroad, diplomacy and travel safety experts advise American travelers to blend in, keep a low profile, and avoid displaying their citizenry overtly. Etiquette specialists recommend basic manners, cultural sensitivity, learning key phrases in the local language, practicing greeting customs, dressing neutrally, and respecting cultural norms.
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International Cultural Exchange Act of 1956
The International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of 1956, also known as Executive Order 10716, was a significant piece of legislation in the history of US cultural diplomacy. This act was administered by the United States Information Agency (USIA) and played a crucial role in shaping America's cultural engagement with the world during the Cold War era.
During the 1950s, the US government actively pursued cultural diplomacy as a strategy to enhance its global image and counter negative perceptions. This decade has been referred to as the "golden years of cultural diplomacy" by some historians. The International Cultural Exchange Act of 1956 was a key component of this strategy, facilitating cultural exchanges and participation in trade fairs internationally.
The act placed specific responsibilities on the Director of the United States Information Agency. According to the act, the Director was tasked with coordinating the functions outlined in the legislation and advising the President of the United States on these matters. The Director was also responsible for preparing and transmitting reports to the President, which the President was then required to submit to Congress as mandated by the act.
The International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of 1956 also delegated certain functions to the Secretary of Commerce. These functions were outlined in various sections of the act, including sections 3(3), 3(4), 4, 6, and 7. The act recognised the need for inter-agency collaboration, as the Director of the United States Information Agency was authorised to establish inter-agency committees and consult with the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Commerce.
The 1950s marked a period when US cultural diplomacy sought to appeal to a generation traumatised by the horrors of war and authoritarianism. This approach, however, faced challenges in the 1960s due to the Vietnam War, student protests, the civil rights movement, and decolonisation. As a result, US cultural diplomacy began to be viewed with increasing resentment, particularly among younger generations, who saw it as manipulative propaganda.
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US cultural image and identity
The US has historically been associated with a particular set of ideals and values, which are often reflected in its cultural products and foreign policies. These include liberty, equality, democracy, individualism, hard work, and the rule of law. Political dynamics and different political eras have also played a significant role in shaping the US's cultural image and identity, with each era leaving its unique imprint. For example, F.D. Roosevelt's New Deal during the Great Depression reinforced the image of American resilience and innovation.
The US's identity has also been influenced by its history as a nation of immigrants, resulting in a rich tapestry of diverse cultures. However, the "proto-typical" American has often been portrayed as older, less educated, Christian, and white, which has led to nativist and anti-immigrant attitudes. This image is being challenged by demographic changes, with increasing diversity and a decline in religious identification.
US cultural diplomacy has played a significant role in shaping the country's image abroad, particularly during the Cold War. At this time, the US actively promoted its culture and values to counter anti-Americanism and improve its reputation on the global stage. American cultural products, such as films, TV shows, and music, have had a significant impact on how the US is perceived internationally, fostering both admiration and criticism.
The expansion of US cultural diplomacy during the early Cold War was partly a response to concerns about the lack of modern national image management. Despite increased spending on foreign aid and the deployment of soldiers to protect client states, the nation's reputation continued to deteriorate. Analyses by Franz M. Joseph and Raymond Aron in their publication "As Others See Us" highlighted global antipathies directed against the United States, including criticisms of American industry, mass production, race relations, and popular culture. Soviet propagandists further attacked US culture, portraying it as a threat to other nations' ways of life and identities.
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US cultural diplomacy in film
The United States has a long history of cultural diplomacy in film, with the film industry seen as a central vehicle for international communication. During the First, Second, and Cold Wars, the US government worked closely with producers to spread its message to global audiences.
Film has been described as one of the most influential and accessible mediums of cultural diplomacy, with the ability to entertain, educate, and enhance relationships, break stereotypes, and transcend borders. For example, the Indian Tamil movie focusing on the Babri Masjid debate and the riots it caused, which killed 2,000 people, received international recognition and became the first Bollywood movie to make the UK top 10. It was an example of cultural diplomacy as it depicted cultural differences being put aside in the pursuit of peace. Similarly, Bruce Lee's 'Enter the Dragon' was the first Chinese martial arts film produced by a major Hollywood studio. The film was deemed 'culturally significant' in the USA and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Lee portrayed Chinese culture and tradition in a way that was appreciated by Western audiences, harmonizing Oriental and Western culture to create values that could be appreciated across the world.
In the 1950s, the US cultural diplomacy agenda was considered to have had a successful decade, with historians calling it the "golden years of cultural diplomacy." It appealed to a generation devastated by the war and shaken by the terror of authoritarianism. However, this changed in the 1960s with the Vietnam War, student protests, the civil rights movement, and decolonization. A new generation became increasingly resentful of what they perceived as manipulative US propaganda.
In response, the USIA (United States Information Agency) tried to distance itself from the State Department by becoming an independent institution. It also shifted its focus from short-term events to long-term country plans. Despite these efforts, the USIA faced scrutiny as the Cold War ended, and its existence was questioned. The Clinton administration folded the agency in 1999, amidst a surge of anti-American sentiment in the Middle East and former Warsaw Pact member states.
While the US has faced challenges in its cultural diplomacy efforts, film continues to play a significant role in shaping global perceptions of the country and fostering international understanding.
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Frequently asked questions
The US adopted cultural diplomacy in 1956 with the International Cultural Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act.
Eisenhower, who signed the act, stated that he hoped that it would "'give way to international understanding based on truth'" and reduce "mistrust based on falsehoods".
The heyday of state-orchestrated cultural diplomacy in the US was during the Cold War.
